Practical Wisdom
Relying on rational restriction, our philosophers divide wisdom into two parts: theoretical wisdom and practical wisdom. To justify this position, they argue that the subject of wisdom is either within the domain of human power and capabilities or out of it.
The kind of wisdom that deals with things beyond man's will, intention, and control is the same rational knowledge of the world or theoretical wisdom. On the other hand, the kind of wisdom that depends on man's will, acts, and intention and is, in a sense, concerned with human acts and behaviors and under man's control is called practical wisdom. Mulla Sadra and some others believe that theoretical wisdom provides the basis for practical wisdom and is naturally superior to it.
However, if we cast a new look at this subject, we can conclude that practical wisdom is superior because, if theoretical wisdom is the same as man's knowledge of the truths of the world, in spite of its utmost importance, it is nothing but a kind of passive knowledge separate from the objectivity of the external world. Moreover, since it is of the type of acquired knowledge, it depends on the human mind and understanding. Now, if we consider it as a kind of knowledge belonging to the category of subjective qualities, it will be something almost like the reflection of an image on a film.
However, practical wisdom is neither based on the mind nor passively rooted in it. Rather, it is based on the free will and the rational soul. This soul is the core of humanity and distinguishes human beings from other existents. It is a kind of activity and innovation along with recognition and distinction through the practical intellect. It is also the same faculty that appeals to the theoretical wisdom in order to employ them to release theoretical wisdom from dogmatism and passivity and render it dynamic. In sum, practical wisdom leads man to humanity and happiness. In fact, without it, man simply becomes a carrier of knowledge whom scholars of ethics assimilate to a fruitless tree. The Qur'an also equates a non-acting knower to a beast of burden (Chapter al-Jum'ah:5).
The division of wisdom or philosophy into two practical and theoretical types since ancient times designates the intelligence and far-sightedness of early philosophers and thinkers for the good of human life and supports the prophets' mission for present and future times. A careful study of the true heavenly religions also reveals that the philosophy behind prophethood and messengership and the presence of prophets among people was not merely limited to proclaiming their faith or introducing an ideology. Rather, it was intended to bring about a better life for all people, pave the way for their worldly and other-worldly happiness, release them from the fetters of the soul's whims, and trigger the growth of human perfection.
A meticulous inquiry into heavenly religions and the efforts of scientists and thinkers of the world suggests that the purpose of all sciences is to discover the laws of the world and create civilizations that lead to man's happiness.
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In a general classification, the practical part of philosophy is divided into ethics, home administration, and politics.
Ethics: Self-making or training others, which is the cornerstone of society and family, is a fundamental principle in improving the structure of a social system.
Family or home administration: Family is the first social institution in which a rational and pious society could be established. However, not until the members constructing this society - husband and wife - have passed the filter of ethics, do they deserve to form a family and undertake the important duties of fatherhood and motherhood.
Politics (the correct, beneficial, and wise management of society): Human life, whether at the local and national level or at the regional and international level, must be based on correct rational principles, wisdom, logical considerations, and natural laws. In this way, man will be freed from the whirlpool of suffering and chaos and will enjoy welfare, peace, and security.
Practical wisdom (including ethics, family administration, and politics), as the second wing of philosophy, has always attracted the attention of early philosophers and Islamic philosophers. Likewise, Mulla Sadra always paid attention to this important field in different ways. As mentioned before, in addition to referring to the three parts of practical wisdom in his books on other subjects, some of his books, such as Iksir al-'arifin, Kasr al-asnam al-jahiliyyah, and Sih asl, are exclusively written on this field of philosophy (applied philosophy).
The relationship between individual ethics and family administration and management of social order or politics is so complicated and tight that it is impossible to determine which one precedes the other. This is because we can consider training of individuals as the effect of social training, and social politics as the effect of family order, or both of them as the effects of individuals' characters. This is a complicated issue. However, in early philosophers' hierarchy, ethics came first; family (home administration) came second, and social order (civil politics) came third. Accordingly, in order to follow this traditional order and Mulla Sadra's view, in this part, we will first deal with ethics.
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Science of ethics
Based on historical evidence, the science of ethics was first developed and presented to the domain of wisdom by Aristotle in his Ethics addressing his son Nichomacus. However, more scrutiny reveals that this science was a target of great attention both in the East and in Greece. Nevertheless, it was not explored academically. Pythagoras' collection of moral exhortations is an example in this regard.
As an important field of study, this branch of wisdom constantly attracted the attention of scholars after Aristotle and they dealt with it now and then. During Islamic periods, some books were written on it; however, the bright light of the essence of ethics and training in the Qur'an and the Sunnah (tradition) of the People of the Prophet's House rendered the Greek science of ethics pale in Muslims' philosophical societies. Later, in the light of the books written by Ibn Miskawayh and Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi, Muslim philosophers did not take Aristotle's style and method of devising and teaching ethics seriously any more.
Aristotle's school suffered from some grave defects. Firstly, its reliance on the Almighty Origin of the world was weak, and he was heedless of tawhid (oneness of God) in its Islamic sense. This was because his metaphysics had a tint of "Homerian" and mythological culture and was not in conformity with the Holy station and true Oneness of Almighty and the God of the Qur'an.
Secondly, Aristotle's prosaic school of theoretical philosophy and its separation from the principles of practical wisdom on the one hand, and the alienation of his practical wisdom (ethics, family, political society) from theoretical wisdom, on the other hand, made his philosophy vulnerable to criticism. However, Islamic philosophy and the spirit of philosophy and wisdom demand the tight union of theoretical and practical wisdom, which was clearly witnessed in the Illuminationist philosophy as the legacy of ancient Iran. Therein, piety, asceticism, and the training of the innermost were among the prerequisites of theoretical wisdom. It should also be added that in Aristotle's ethics, no attention was paid to man in their comprehensive sense and to their station as God's vicegerent.
Thirdly, a method without a spiritual guide and moral teacher was a kind of practical wisdom that Aristotle had innovated. Like writers of self-study books, he founded the method of teaching of philosophy by books. Here, there was no need for teacher instruction and care, since students could simply learn the material through reading them in the related book's. This method stood at a great distance from the Illuminationist and Islamic method, in which a necessary condition for understanding and acquiring theoretical and practical wisdom is having an experienced and knowledgeable master.
That is why the tree of the Peripatetic wisdom only bore unripe fruit and nothing was produced in this school but some incompetent philosophers. Accordingly, shortly after Aristotle, his school was marginalized and the traditional Illuminationist method of Pythagoras was revived, and the remainder of, for example, Stoic, cynicism, and neo-Platonic schools replaced this school.
Finally, Aristotle's ethics or politics had nothing to do with the real world and people. His theories only consisted of words and did not deal with the realities of man's innermost, the depth of the creation of the world, and, most importantly, an All-knowing and Wise Creator Who has created the whole world in the light of His wisdom for the purpose of granting a happiness which was different from the happiness intended by Aristotle, to all people.
All in all, Aristotelian ethics was lifeless and told nothing of the secrets and delicate realities in man's innermost. Regarding individual ethics, he was only content with referring to three concupiscible, irascible, and rational faculties. He believed that the peak of human ethics is reached when the two concupiscible and irascible faculties are maintained at a moderate level. He called this moderation justice and knowledge and introduced the rational faculty as the guard of the borderline between good and bad, moderation and going to extremes, and beauty and ugliness. In doing so, he never referred to the mysterious human nature, the specific inner trans-substantial motion of the soul and the divine blast, the human essential perfection-seeking desire, and the effects of other human voluntary and non-voluntary actions and behaviors.
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Abstracts
Mulla Sadra and Sufism
The philosophical trend of Sufism (tasawwuf) has experienced several ups and downs in Islamic tradition to the extent that some of its branches and sects have even gone astray or been misled. Generally speaking, this trend has two main branches: the members of one of them have attained their teachings and principles from the People of the Prophet's Household. They are true Sufis and advocate a gnostic method. The members of the other branch have either gone to extremes in asceticism and piety or turned their back at true Islamic teachings. They have even considered such teachings as a veil and often advocate unwise behaviors and beliefs. The ideas and behaviors of this group are explicitly rejected by the Imams (a). Mulla Sadra also criticizes them and rejects their religion, particularly when, by resorting to exotericism, they advocate mamonism. Nevertheless, he refers to the words and works of the prominent figures of the first group and considers them as support for findings of reason. Therefore, the contrast involved in the two meanings of the word Sufism and interpretation of tasawwuf (Sufism) and Sufiyyah (sect of Sufis) demands great attention.
Key Terms
sufism tasawwuf
gnosis teachings of the People of the Prophet's Household
Mulla Sadra
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A Critique of a Critique:
Immortality of the Soul in the Transcendent Philosophy
One of the important problems of Islamic philosophy, in general, and the Transcendent Philosophy, in particular, is the problem of the immortality of the soul. Many of the philosophers preceding Mulla Sadra presented some arguments on demonstrating this issue. While accepting some of these arguments, Mulla Sadra considered them incomplete and insufficient. Therefore, based on some of the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy, such as the trans-substantial motion, corporeal origination, and spiritual subsistence, he managed to provide a more comprehensive view than those of his predecessors. As a result, he could remove some of the shortcomings rooted in their arguments, such as the problem of the "co-existence of the origination of the soul with its immortality". However, Mulla Sadra's view has been criticized by some contemporary philosophers who have misunderstood some of the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy. In this paper, while elaborating Mulla Sadra's view in this regard, we will explore and criticize the objections raised against it.
Key Terms
the soul immortality
mode of attachment and detachment trans-substantial motion
corporeal origination spiritual subsistence
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Mulla Sadra's Role in the Transformation of Aristotelian Logic
Akbar Faydei*
With their numerous innovations in the field of logic, Muslim Peripatetics created a huge transformation in the logical legacy of the land of Ionia, Aristotelian categorical logic, the Megarian-Stoic conditional logic, and Avicennan school of logic. Although under the influence of Ibn Sina's philosophy, Shaykh al-Ishraq also greatly influenced the thoughts of later logician through his particular logical ideas.
The logicians following Ibn Sina mainly delved into the content of his logic. Mulla Sadra, who was both influenced by the views of Avicennan school of logic and, sometimes, Illuminationist logic, has several innovative theories concerning the introductory discussions of logic and both definiens and argument. In this paper, the writers have shed some light on his innovations and his role in the transformation and dissemination of Aristotelian logic in the Islamic world.
Key Terms
Concept and judgment Avicennan logic
Mulla Sadra unity in predication
Illuminationist logic
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The Nexus between Ideal and Real Cities in Plato's Thought
Researchers in the fields of philosophy and political thought have always faced the following question: "If Plato's Utopia, as he claims, is a city existing in heaven or mainly in words and, thus, non-existent on earth, and if it has not been designed and introduced to be realized on this planet, why should Plato devote hundreds of pages to the description of this city and its particular rules? Another question here is: "Why does Plato propound a series of special principles in his Republic but present different ideas in dialogs of Statesman and The Laws. Does this change of attitude, as some believe, mean his frustration with and regret about posing some unethical and, apparently, communist viewpoints in the dialog of Republic and, as a result, for the purpose of portraying a more rational and earthly situation in the other two dialogs? By distinguishing the two related meanings of "happiness" from each other and also introducing the place of imitation (mimesis) in Plato's philosophy, this paper intends to show that, with the presence of rational and maximum laws of the rule of the philosopher (king philosopher) alongside the laws of the imperfect but realizable rule of a king, not only are the rational Utopian rules realized, but the minimum rules formulated by a king also provide the possibility for citizens to live in conformity with their true conditions and based on general cooperation. Accordingly, it can be said that neither are Plato's apparently different political and social views in the above works contradictory, nor will the reading of one without reading the other lead to a correct understanding of the totality of his philosophy. Therefore, the above three works constitute a single body of Plato's political thought in combination with each other.
Key Terms
political thought happiness
society mimesis
world the soul
Ideal rule
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Learning and Teaching the Divine Beliefs and Teachings in Hakim
Fayd Kashani
Fatemah Sadeqzadeh Qamsari*
Fayd Kashani believes that existence of knowledge is the sign of perfect belief and, in this way, emphasizes the necessity of insight and religious awareness. In his view, even without resorting to religious references, the intellect can attain some tawhidi (monotheistic) truths. In such cases, in order to complete its search, the intellect only needs the teachings of the Qur'an and the People of the Prophet's Household. Fayd believes that the learning of religious teachings and beliefs is possible only through divine revelation and through the prophets and their legatees by intuitive knowledge rather than through theological polemics. In his view, unlike other scientists and religious scholars who only teach the elite, the prophets can simplify divine teachings to the level of understanding of ordinary people. At the same time they are capable of clarifying these realities at a level appropriate to the level of knowledge and perception of those who possess supreme intellectual powers.
According to Fayd, people are different in terms of their intelligence and aptitude for learning, and these differences must be considered when teaching religious beliefs and ideas. He primarily advises that all should avoid the method of the people of kalam and then calls researchers to follow the surface meaning of the Qur'an and Sunnah and observe piety and religious laws. He also gives hope that God will reward people in the light of their inspired and revelatory scientific endeavors. However, if one fails to infer religious ideas from the Book and Sunnah, Fayd recommends them to study the book of Ilm al-yaqin. In this book and in Anwar al-hikmah, he has posed some religious discussions having the Qur'an and hadith at the center. He has written Ayn al-yaqin and Usul al-ma'arif for some elite and deep-thinking people who demand some more profound discussions with more clarification regarding religious beliefs.
He also maintains that ordinary people should attain religious beliefs needless of any kind of argument and even through imitation. He recommends them to become involved in worship alongside reading the Qur'an and hadith in order to strengthen their weak beliefs. Fayd believes that the only scholar who is qualified to teach the religion to ordinary people is one who like the prophets can simplify profound teachings to the level of their perception and understanding and talk to everyone at their own level.
Key Terms
teaching religion Qur'anic and traditional teaching
science of kalam philosophy
intellect wisdom
elite ordinary people
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Intellects in Sadrian Philosophy and Angelology in Nahj al-Balaghah with Special Emphasis on Acts
This paper presents a comparative study of Mulla Sadra's philosophical ideas of the acts of the intellect and the functions of angelology in Nahj al-Balaghah. In doing so, his ideas regarding the functions of the intellects have been collected from among his philosophical and interpretative books. Moreover, the points related to the functions of angels in Nahj al-Balaghah have been examined, and it has been concluded that favorite angels are compatible with the Active Intellect in terms of their functions. In other words, both mediate between the Truth and creation in administering worldly affairs, play a creative role in the order of creation, and play a role in the order of the material world from an epistemological point of view.
Key Terms
Active Intellect emanation of forms
angel revelation
administration of affairs
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Internal Consistency of Mulla Sadra's Philosophy Concerning the Mode of the Createdness of the Soul
Muhammed Kazem Forqani[5], Jawad Ibrahimi[6], and Muhammed Ahmadizadeh[7]
Mulla Sadra has two different views regarding the soul and its realization in the physical world. In the first one, he not only considers the soul to be created but also maintains that it is corporeal in its origination but becomes spiritual later through its trans-substantial motion. In his second view, which has remained unnoticed, he declares that the soul is immaterial in its origination but is created with the body. He even stipulates in some of his statements that the soul is realized before the body and speaks in a way as if it is pre-eternal. The lack of a comprehensive look at the overall collection of the teachings of the Transcendent Philosophy might lead some to accuse Mulla Sadra of having contradictory ideas. However, a complete review of the network of Sadrian theories not only indicates that these two views are consistent with other, but also reveals the internal cohesion of the school of Transcendent Philosophy. In fact, taking both of Mulla Sadra's views regarding the createdness of the soul into consideration contributes to a deeper understanding of the problem of the soul and the way of its realization in the world of matter. The consistency of these two views of the mode of the createdness of the soul will be revealed when attention is paid to the relationship between the arches of ascent and descent, the dependence of the moved in the trans-substantial motion on receiving new perfections from supreme causes, and the actualization of the existence of effects in the existence of the cause through a single existence.
Key Terms
the soul createdness
pre-eternity corporeal
spiritual Mulla Sadra
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An Analysis of the Principle of the Precedence of Temporally Originated Things by
Potency and Matter
Mansur Imanpour*
One of the important principles of Islamic philosophy is that all temporally originated things are preceded by potency and matter. This principle, which explains the relationships among natural objects in the course of time, claims that the formation of all temporally originated things, whether material or immaterial, and the occurrence of all changes in the world are based on some pre-existing contexts and potentials. It also indicates that future is nothing but the flourishing and emergence of the past with the help of certain totally immaterial beings.
During the history, Islamic philosophers have presented some arguments in order to demonstrate this principle. The first is Ibn Sina's famous argument, which relying on the idea that each temporally originated thing is ontologically possible (before creation), and that this possibility is ontological and relative, proves the possibility of preparedness and the matter carrying it. However, this argument firstly suffers from the fallacy of equivocality of names. Secondly, by considering possibility to be relative, it has to deal with a serious challenge, i.e. the realization of a relation without any existing sides.
The second and third arguments, with one considering the annihilation and flaw of conditions and the other considering the existence of conditions and the annihilation of barrier as the causes of the appearance of preparedness, suffer from the fallacy of petito principii (reasoning in a circle). Nevertheless, there is also a fourth argument which is based on the commensurability between the recipient and the received, and the past and future. The writer believes that this is the strongest argument in this regard.
This paper intends to provide a conceptual analysis of this principle and determine the instances of its truth. It also examines the existing interpretations in relation to this principle and analyzes its arguments and the related criticisms.
Key Terms
temporally originated potency
matter change
Islamic philosophy
* President of Sadra Islamic Philosophy Research Institute, siprin@mullasadra.org
[1]. Assistant Professor, Philosophy and Kalam Department, Razawi Islamic Sciences University
[2]. MA Student of Islamic Philosophy and Kalam Razawi Islamic Sciences University, hoseinpoor7@gmail.com
* Assistant Professor of Islamic Philosophy and Wisdom, Shahid Madani University, Azarbaijan, faydei@yahoo.com
* Assistant Professor of Islamic Philosophy, Institute for Cultural and Social Studies, mahoozi.reza@gmail.com
* Assistant Professor, Philosophy Department of Imam Sadiq University, Sisters' Paradise sadeqzadeh@isuw.ac.ir
[3]. Assistant Professor, Theology Department of Isfahan University
[4]. MA Student of Islamic Philosophy and Kalam, Isfahan University, M.jamshedean.@yahoo.com
[5]. Assistant Professor, Imam Sadiq University, forghani@isu.ac.ir
[6]. MA Student of Islamic Philosophy and Kalam, Imam Sadiq University
[7]. MA Student of Islamic Philosophy and Kalam, Imam Sadiq University
* Associate Professor, Islamic Philosophy and Wisdom Department Shahid Madani University, Azarbaijan, man3ima@yahoo.com