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Then he refers to another prophetic hadith saying, "God has created water pure; nothing makes it impure unless a contaminating agent changes its color, taste or smell", and concludes that the criterion for "purity" (not being affected by extra substances) is that none of the above three-fold qualities appear in it. In other words, the criterion for the purity of water is "dominance", not a specific weight or volume which is included in the definition of "Kurr" water. It is not necessary for change in the above features to be realized; rather, the sign of "dominance" of an external thing over water nullifies its purity.

This can be justified by saying that if a body of water which exceeds "Kurr" water in volume is dominated by a contaminating agent and its three-fold qualities change, it cannot be considered pure anymore. In other words, being "Kurr" is not enough for being pure, and it has, rather, been referred to in traditions as a guiding point. Perhaps, the difference in its weight and volume is rooted in its being non-significant and a marginal feature.

In sum, based on the above two hadiths, the true criterion in this problem is dominance, the sign of which is the appearance of the three-fold attributes of extra substances in water. This is an indication of transformation. If the contaminating agent is transformed, it is not impure anymore and is considered to be water.

Thus water's "purifying" quality is logically due to its dominance and not something else. As a result a contaminating agent's coming into contact with water, whether under-Kurr or Kurr, does not damage the purity of water as long as its three-fold features do not change.

'Allamah Fayd states that, if the criterion for the impurity of water were its being under-Kurr, we would not be able to remove impurity with it, and a body of water that comes into contact with impurity, according to some jurisprudents, must immediately become contaminated, while this is not the case. As a result, since the body of water that meets impurity does not become contaminated and is capable of purifying, the criterion for the impurity of under-Kurr water is not simply its coming into contact with an impure agent.

In some of his jurisprudential books, Mir Damad has implicitly defended this idea and believes that Ibn 'Aqil's decree as to "the purity of under-Kurr water in spite of its meeting an impure agent..." is not against the consensus of Shi'ite jurisprudents.[1]

It is worth mentioning that such decrees which are rooted in jurisprudential rationality, are completely technical, enjoy great demonstrative power, and are against the famous decrees of some jurisprudents have been given by those jurisprudents who possess greater innovative and critical powers, freedom of thought, philosophical and logical insight, and scientific courage. Mulla Sadra and Fayd are also expected to have had the same qualities.

No book has remained from Mulla Sadra on jurisprudence and legal theories or, if there has been any, it might have been destroyed. However, the spread of philosophy during the Safawid era certainly affected the growth of theology. A short explanation is provided below in order to become familiar with the field of principles of jurisprudence.

Historically, the science of principles of jurisprudence was mainly a part of the problems of early kalam, yet after its becoming an independent and specialized science, they still shared some problems with each other.[2] This science includes some general principles which are useful for the inference of religious principles and laws and contributes to the exertion of the religious jurist (an expert in jurisprudence and inferential law).

Western logicians call deontic a part of logical principles that are used in law and pertain to legal orders and prohibitions. The field comprising these principles is similar to jurisprudence; therefore, a part of jurisprudence can be called the logic of jurisprudence.

Since it was born, this science found an important place among Shi'ite jurisprudents because it was compatible with the rationality of Shi'ite thought. However, it was technically, quantitatively, and qualitatively spread mainly in the time of the writers of Qawanin al-usul and Fusul, that is, during the Safawid era in Iran and Iraq. At this time, because of developing political independence and a scientific and intellectual society, both theology and jurisprudence suddenly experienced a noteworthy and unnatural growth among the Shi'ite. As a result, they moved ahead of similar fields in other Islamic branches and turned into vast, technical, and complicated sciences some problems and achievements of which were not comprehensible to many jurisprudents and theologians of other religious branches.

Nevertheless, at the time of Shaykh Baha'i, Mir Damad, Mulla Sadra, and even one or two centuries after them, this growth and flourishing was not obvious and, thus, none of these great figures have an important and valid book on principles of jurisprudence.

For example, Shaykh Baha'i's Zubdat al-usul, as its name suggests, is a short list-wise book, although some relatively long commentaries have been written on it. Mir Damad has also compiled seven problems in a treatise called al-Sab' al-shidad. The famous work of that period is the book of Ma'alim al-Din, the son of Shahid Thani, which is still taught in seminaries. For a long time (until the 13^th century), the works on principles of jurisprudence were limited to writing commentaries on this book and summarizing it.

However, this situation cannot be considered to be in contrast with fundamental change and depth of jurisprudential thoughts during the Safawid era. The reason is that the context for the sudden growth and advancement of jurisprudence in the 13^th and 14^th centuries was developed based on the efforts of the jurisprudents and philosophers of two centuries before that time. For example, in that period we can see some works in the form of articles or collections of jurisprudential principles (such as Mulla Ahmad Naraqi's 'Awa'id and Maraghi's Anawin) and certain philosophical deliberations on jurisprudential issues the fruits of which appeared in the jurisprudence of the same era and the seminaries of Isfahan, Najaf, and other regions. A number of books such as Shaykh Ansari's Rasa'il and Matarih al-anzar wa kifayat al-usul also stepped into the domain of research, and it is likely that the natural and qualitative growth of the science of jurisprudence was influenced by the philosophical fields of that time, as well as its inferential and logical atmosphere.

No book has been introduced on jurisprudence by Mulla Sadra. Neither did he write anything on most fields of the general and particular sciences which he taught or was familiar with. Although he was a powerful muhaddith, he only wrote a philosophical commentary on Usul al-kafi. He had no book on biography and criticism of traditionists (ilm al-rijal), mathematics, astronomy, medicine, or the like either and, as mentioned before, he intended to dedicate his life to nothing but philosophy and only to theology and knowledge of the Origin, resurrection, and the self.

One of the noteworthy aspects of Mulla Sadra's life which demands research is his jurisprudential taste and attitude towards the conflict between his contemporary traditionists and jurisprudents brought to Iran and Isfahan by traditionists through Mulla Muhammed Amin Astarabadi from Iraq and Hijaz.

Previously we referred to Mulla Sadra's idea of dry traditionists, whom he calls the Hanbalite and Shi'ite Zahirites. He harshly attacks them, which shows that he was a principlist jurisprudent and did not favor traditionism. On the other hand, the writer of Rawzat al-janat, in his commentary on Ibn Abi 'Aqil's ideas (after quoting his decree about the non-impurity of under-Kurr water when meeting a contaminating agent without changing its three-fold attributes), argues that this decree has recently become prevalent among traditionists. This decree is one of the differences between principlists and traditionists.

In his way, he places Mulla Sadra and Fayd in the line of traditionists. Yet, given Mulla Sadra's disagreements with traditionists and those who unknowingly follow Zahirites and Hanbalites, we cannot accept this idea. For one thing, one of the famous characteristics of traditionists is their blind and illogical devotion to hadith whatever it is. Moreover, they do not resort to rational arguments in understanding hadiths and traditions, while the decrees of Mulla Sadra and Fayd are based on rational, logical, and fundamental reasoning in the understanding and inference of the verses and hadiths related to a problem. This shows the presence of a profound and principled jurisprudence.

In addition, we previously stated and emphasized that being a traditionist is other than being a muhaddith, and not each muhaddith is a traditionist. Thus it is wrong to mix them with each other, and traditionism can be considered a kind of diversion.

Zakariya Baharnejad

The theory of gradation is one of the few problems that has attracted the attention of all philosophical schools (Peripatetic School, Illuminationist School and the Transcendent Philosophy) and Muslim logicians, mutakallimun, and gnostics. It is indeed because of this careful attention of Muslim thinkers that this theory has gradually flourished and attained relative and acceptable perfection in its process of development. This theory has greatly influenced logical and philosophical semantics, as well as the epistemology and cosmology of Muslim philosophers and gnostics. The theory of gradation has been propounded in response to the following question: Is the reality of being one or many? The answer to this question, in a way, reveals one's philosophical and cosmological propensity. Generally speaking, there are three main responses to this question:

1. The reality of being is "one", and there is unity in the world (gnostics' view).

2. The reality of being is "multiple"; therefore, there is multiplicity in the world (this view is attributed to the Peripatetics).

The most important debate and its outcome in this regard have emerged in the cosmology of Sadrian gnostics and philosophers. Here, gnostics believe in the theory of "gradation in the loci of the manifestations of being". However, Sadrian philosophers advocate the theory of "gradation in the levels of being". In this paper, while explaining the historical development of the problem of gradation, the writer has discussed the views of Muslim gnostics, mutakallimun, philosophers, and logicians in this regard.

Qudratullah Khayyatiyan

The word hijab and its synonyms have been frequently used in some Qur'anic verses and traditions transmitted by Islamic leaders and, before them, in several important gnostic texts.

In this paper, based on a study of verses, traditions, and gnostic sources, it has been tried to explain the usages of the word hijab and its synonyms and gnostics' intention of it. Here, the writer has also explored the relationship between Qur'anic hijab and gnostic hijab.

Given the background of the discussion, the writer has examined and criticized the meanings of some of the related terms, such as "union" and "proximity" in order to see if the concept of "gnostic union" is in conformity with "proximity" as used in the holy Qur'an.

It is finally concluded that gnostics have used some Qur'anic terms, such as hijab, turned them into gnostic terms, and used them in the sense intended by themselves. Moreover, it is argued that there is an absolute general and particular relationship between Qur'anic hijab and gnostic hijab, and not all the uses of this word in the Qur'an are intended in its gnostic sense. Given the fact that, according to gnostics, not all the hijabs between the servant and the Truth can be removed, the writer also concludes that the union intended by gnostics is in unity with and related to the concept of "proximity" in the Qur'an.

The Impact of Ibn Arabi's Gnostic Unveilings upon Mulla Sadra's Philosophical Thoughts

Behzad Murtada'i

A great number of Mulla Sadra's innovations in the Transcendent Philosophy, such as the "principiality of existence", "gradation of existence", "oneness of being", "principle of causality", "the trans-substantial motion", "createdness and eternity of the world", and "corporeal and spiritual resurrection" have the taste of gnostic unveilings. A study of each of these important problems clearly reveals the influence of Ibn Arabi's gnostic unveilings on Mulla Sadra's philosophical thoughts. In several places of Mulla Sadra's works, reference has been made to Ibn Arabi's words as proof.

The most important change in Mulla Sadra's philosophical thoughts was his rejection of the theory of the principiality of quiddity and demonstrating the principiality of existence. This turn of thought and his interest in the principiality of existence were based on several factors a great part of which returned to the various aspects of gnosis and ideas of great gnostics such as Ibn Arabi.

Regarding the problem of the oneness of being and non-existential nature of possible things, Mulla Sadra's philosophical and dhawqi (related to intellectual intuition) ideas are very close to Ibn Arabi's unveilings.

It is important to know that the demonstration of grades and levels for multiple existents in instructional settings where we have considered them to be multiple is truly and essentially no different from what we will discuss concerning the demonstration of the unity of being and existents, as is confirmed by the great gnostics and favorites of God advocating unveiling and intuition.

Regarding the problem of mental existence we should say that Mulla Sadra believes in it and, in order to demonstrate it, resorts to Ibn Arabi's words. With respect to the problem of the trans-substantial motion, initially, he provides some arguments against his opponents and then refers to Qur'anic verses. Later, he quotes from Aristotle and, finally, refers to Ibn Arabi to prove his point.

The above cases are examples of Ibn Arabi's influence on Mulla Sadra's philosophical-gnostic thought, as examined in this paper.

Immateriality of Perception and its Flow in Material Existents in the Transcendent Philosophy

Qasim Ali Kuchenani and Ali Muhammed Ja'farinejad

The Commensurability of existence with knowledge is one of the teachings of the Transcendent Philosophy the logical consequence of which is that each existent enjoys a kind of sensation and perception, whether it is an inanimate body or vegetative being. This view can be considered a philosophical outcome of the principiality of existence, gradation of existence, and simplicity of existence; however, it seems that this theory is in clear opposition to the principle of the immateriality of knowledge and perception acknowledged by Mulla Sadra. As a result, one might ask if believing in a kind of perception in bodies indicates the material nature of perception. Otherwise, how does a purely material existent possess knowledge and perception? In this paper, the writers have tried to provide a philosophical analysis of the principle of the immateriality of knowledge and the principle of the commensurability of existence with knowledge and explored their consistency with each other.

Fatima Sadiqzadeh Qamsari

Mulla Sadra has criticized many of the groups who posed theological problems before him in his works. In doing so, he harshly attacks the anti-philosophy superficial pseudo-scholars and advances severe objections against the followers of discursive wisdom who have received their knowledge in ways other than through prophethood and guardianship. He also opposes that group of the people of unveiling who are content with their dhawqi findings (related to taste) and have no demonstrative arguments supporting their words, goes against the people of theology, who believe in some corrupt and heretic ideas advocating the method of disputation, and emphasizes that the religious beliefs of laymen and the people of imitation are shaky.

With reference to the necessity of knowledge and the purity of heart in receiving teachings and true sciences, as well as the vital importance of gnostic taste, reasoning, and revealed teachings, Mulla Sadra establishes his theological system. While resorting to reasoning and wisdom, Sadrian theology also benefits from intuitive knowledge, Qur'anic teachings, and traditions of the Infallibles. There is a harmony among rational arguments, gnostic taste, and revealed teachings in transcendent theology. In fact, without resorting to the common kalami methods of that time, Mulla Sadra explains many Islamic realities.

Place of Self-Knowledge in the Philosophy of Afdaluddin Kashani (Baba Afdal)

Seyyed Mustafa Shahraini

Afdaluddin Kashani stepped into the domain of philosophical thought in Iran at a time when, following the harsh attack of Ghazzali and Fakhr al-Din Razi, philosophy was suffering from such lassitude and stagnancy that it needed revival and reconstruction. He saw the remedy in excluding the problematic discussions of metaphysics in particular sense from the field of philosophy and introducing self-knowledge as the basis of philosophical work. Comparing to the works of philosophers before him, what can be considered as the distinctive feature of Baba Afdal's works in terms of content is dealing with philosophy from a perspective different from that of the common philosophical works of his time and before him. A study of the prevalent philosophical atmosphere of the early 5^th century and all the 6^th century reveals that what mostly provoked the opposition of religious people against philosophy could be found in the domain of theology. Accordingly, Baba Afdal had rightly understood that, after the destructive attacks of Ghazzali against the apparently solid and powerful foundation of Peripatetic philosophy, the continuity of philosophical thought following the method of early philosophers neither was possible nor had the necessary attraction and appeal for absorbing any audience. He correctly understood the significance of creating a fundamental change in philosophical approaches and tried to accomplish this important task in order to remove the causes of the conflicts between religious-minded people and philosophers from the field of philosophy. Moreover, he did so in order to open a new horizon before the eyes of philosophers and followed a clever method without making much ado in this regard. In fact, he tried to revive philosophy based on a Socratic method and free it from the problematic, fruitless, and soulless domain of metaphysics in particular sense and guide it into the lively and efficient realm of self-knowledge.

The Distinction between Nominal and Infinitival Existence in Mulla Sadra and its Philosophical Functions

Muhammed S'aidi Mehr and Siyavash Asadi

The word "existence" has two nominal and infinitival meanings. Nominal existence refers to the reality and essence of things, while infinitival existence refers to abstract and mental existence. Each of the denotations of existence has its own features; for example, for nominal existence, we can refer to the exclusion of non-existence, confirmation of strength and weakness, acceptance of intensity and simplicity, and recognition through intuition. On the other hand, for infinitival existence, we can refer to such characteristics as the capacity for coming together with non-existence in different directions, being general and universal, and not being applied to essence. Since in its affirmative sense, infinitival existence is a universal concept and, as is commonly said, an intelligible matter, here the writers have discussed its place among the three-fold intelligibles. At the end of this paper, they have also examined some of the functions and philosophical outcomes of the distinction between nominal existence and infinitival existence.

[1]. Mir Damad's Ta'liqat on 'Allamah's Mukhtalif al-Shi'ah, discussion of consensus, p. 48; A Judge's Knowledge, Professor Seyyed Mohammed Khamenei.

[2]. For example 'Allamah Hilli's Mabadi al-usul discusses the purity of the prophets, goodness and ugliness, and thanks giving to the beneficent. Kalami books discuss the validity of the outward aspects of the Qur'an as well as obligation, necessary and permissible acts, and the like, with the first as a kalami issue and the second as a series of jurisprudential issues.

Mulla Sadra's Life, Works, and Philosophy