A Hypothetical Analysis of the History of Mulla Sadra's Books
As it appears from the time table of Mulla Sadra's books, he began writing his books in about 1010 AH, when he was 30 years old and left Isfahan. According to the table given here, since the accurate date of writing some of these books is not quite clear and certain, we have placed the title of the book before a line including a few or several years. Therefore, there are some possible dates for each of these books.
However, based on the assumption that he was busy writing more than one book (except al-Asfar, which was explained before) at the same time, we can determine the exact date of their writing by omitting the common lines between two or more books.
Purposes and Motifs
Purpose and motif are two different things. If we believe that purpose is the same "end" of an act, which philosophers consider as one of the four-fold causes (final cause), Mulla Sadra, like any other philosopher, certainly followed a specific philosophical and rational purpose and end in writing his books, treatises, and other works. If we assume that motif or what motivates an act consists of psychological emotions and elements, rather than philosophical ends, which provoke an act, we should accept that some elements other than final benefit or goal of the act must have played a role in the writing of those works. Therefore, here we can study both the motifs and goals of this well-known philosopher and analyze his mind and soul.
Table 1: Hypothetical Writing Dates of Mulla Sadra's Books
As discussed earlier, Mulla Sadra's books are not uniform, nor are they written within the same framework. They differ from each other in quantity, content, and style. Thus we can look for a different motif and purpose for each of them.
Before anything else, we must undoubtedly accept that the main motif behind all of Mulla Sadra's writings, like that behind all his ascetic practices and individual and social acts and behaviors, was to gain God's satisfaction, seek proximity to Almighty Truth, and perform a religious and moral duty rather than pretension, deception, show off, display of knowledge, or the like.
Since he was well-versed in the Holy Qur'an, hadith, and the noble Sunna of the Prophet (s) and the Infallible Imams, he truly believed in them, and observed their teachings in practice. Moreover, since there are many hadiths on the necessity of "bestowing knowledge", i.e. expressing one's knowledge and teaching it to others, in related books,[1] and since teaching has sometimes been referred to as "alm" of knowledge,[2] he considered it his obligation and duty to transfer his knowledge and scientific and religious achievements, or, in a sense, his acquired and intuitive knowledge, which included all the common sciences of the time and the divine emanations, illuminations, and inspirations that he had received, to others through teaching and writing. Mulla Sadra did this like a mother feeding those whose thirst for knowledge had drawn them to him.
When commenting on the hadiths related to bestowing knowledge in Sharh-i usul al-kafi, Mulla Sadra refers to the following hadith as proof: "One who accumulates some knowledge and keeps it hidden will have a fiery bridle on his mouth on the Day of Resurrection."
Accordingly, he believed it was his duty to teach whenever there were some students around him. However, when he was far from them in his private, he put his knowledge and achievements on the paper using a secretive and metaphorical language and wrote books and treatises for future generations and the absent students who had not been born yet, as well as for his enthusiastic readers.
After this motif, we can refer to philosophical thought and method of philosophers, who believed that the spread of wisdom was a rational necessity, as the second motif. This is because the divine laws of the intellect must be obeyed like the divine laws of "transmission". In fact, both of them are the two arms of human nature that together help man gain perfection and maintain a firm grip on the rope of God.
Nevertheless, his normal and particular motifs for writing books and treatises can be divided into different types. He wrote some of his books in order to define and disseminate his new philosophical and scientific principles, which he considered to be necessary for the development of knowledge and removing the veil from the face of the truth. In this way, he also revealed the ugliness of the ignorance and mistakes of earlier philosophers and ornamented them with the beauty of the truth with his skillful hands.
In this category, we can refer to al-Asfar and some of his other works such as al-Mabda' wal-ma'ad, Huduth al-'alam, al-Mazahir, al-Masha'ir, Sharh al-hidayah, and even the following treatises: union of The Intellect and the Intelligible, Arshiyyah, Shawq al-hayula, Logic, T'aliqat al-shifa, Sharh al-hikmat al-ishraq, and Ajwibat to other questions.
Another group of his books were intended to express the realities of the Qur'an and hadith, unveiling the beauty of revelation, and highlighting the boundaries between revelation and the intellect.
A third group of Mulla Sadra's books were written in order to defend the intellect, which was not valued at all by some theologians. Under the pretext of believing and relying on the Qur'an and hadith, they ignored and even denounced rational principles, which are the offspring of the intellect. Such beliefs were greatly widespread among Ash'arites.
The fourth group was written with the motif to teach philosophy to lovers of this field, seminary students, and seekers of knowledge. This is both the duty of philosophers and a response to an internal instinct and desire.
The above purposes are, in a sense, inseparable, and, in all or at least most of Mulla Sadra's books, this combination and unity can be witnessed. However, if we consider the previous analysis and division as the basis and set the strength of each motif in each of the books as the criterion, we can classify his books and treatises approximately into the following groups.
1. Pure textbooks
As a responsible and obliged philosophy teacher, Mulla Sadra believed in training philosophers and, like a mother who devotes herself to the growth and perfection of her children, he was always feeding the souls and minds of his young and old students. At that time, unlike the present, there was no center responsible for writing textbooks, and students, based on their own taste or that of their teachers, used the books that had been written by the scholars of each field in the form of texts, commentaries, and even glosses in order to acquire knowledge.
However, some of the scholars of this period who were more hard-working and devoted wrote books. Mulla Sadra was one of them. Most of his books can be considered to be textbooks in some way; however, those which do not make any reference to ethical principles or training and the like involve his books on logic (Tanqih al-mantiq) as well as Meybodi's Sharh al-hidayah. Apparently, he had written these two books for pure teaching of logic and ancient Peripatetic philosophy.
2. Textbook and reference to principles
Mulla Sadra is one of the most innovative philosophers of the world because he not only developed an independent, coherent, and comprehensive school, but also introduced several principles the most famous and important of which amount to more than ten in number. In a treatise called Shawahid al-rububiyyah (which must not be mistaken with the book al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah), Mulla Sadra himself has referred to more than 170 innovative principles and arguments which he has presented among the pages of his instructional and analytic books. The most famous and conspicuous of these books is his al-Asfar al-arba'ah, in which, in addition to a series of common philosophical issues, Mulla Sadra has referred to and defended his own specific principles. It seems that he wrote this book for advanced-level philosophy students. At the same time, this book is a philosophical encyclopedia of his period and can be taught and discussed.
His other book, al-Mabda' wa'l ma'ad, which can be considered to be a summary of, an introduction to, or a list of contents of al-Asfar, is also a textbook and includes most of Mulla Sadra's innovative theories. His Asrar al-ayat and even some of his interpretation books can also be classified in this group.
3. Books introducing his specific views and ideas
In this group of books, Mulla Sadra intended to present his specific views (which are referred to as theses, doctrines, and the like), respond to other philosophers' theories, or challenge them. Some of them are in the form of commentaries or glosses on others' works, such as his glosses on a part of Ilahiyyat al-shifa (which is unfinished) and on Suhrawardi's Hikmat al-ishraq, and some others are independent, such as the treatises of The union of the Intellect and Intelligible, Tasawwur wa tasdiq (on logic), al-Masha'ir on demonstrating the principiality of existence, Huduth al-'alam, and Hashr al-ajsam.
The treatises that he wrote in response to the questions of his contemporary philosophers (called al-Ajwibat) can also be placed in the third group.
4. Non-demonstrative books
In programming and policy-making for education or introducing a specific science or technique, it is rationally necessary to take all kinds of addressees and characteristics of the readers of philosophical and scientific books into consideration. Those who present their theories and ideas in complicated and difficult books naturally deprive some from understanding the included concepts. This is because not everyone has the ability to perceive intricate demonstrative issues or has enough time for doing so. Therefore, those scholars who, alongside their complex scientific books, provide a simple and short treatise for less sophisticated readers are more successful than others.
From among the works in this category, we can refer to al-Hikmat al-'arshiyyah, al-Mazahir al-ilahiyyah, Mutashabihat al-Qur'an, and some other treatises.
5. With confidants of secrets
Since ancient times, philosophy has always been a mysterious body of knowledge limited to the elite. This is because its spread among ordinary people is similar to giving the sword to the hands of a drunkard. When the thieves of people's thoughts and faith are equipped with a lamp, they will be able to steal people's possessions more easily.
Until Pythagoras' time, wisdom was a mysterious science and some people were deprived of learning it. In Greece a part of this treasure fell into the hands of some unworthy people who became famous as sophists. From ancient times until our time, the same trend has continued and pseudo-philosopher imposters have always been robbing people from their thoughts and ideas.
That is why, for example, Ibn Sina wrote his masterpiece, al-Shifa, for the public, and in his al-Isharat, he advised the readers of this book not to be generous in lending it to unworthy people.
In the Introduction of his book, he says, "I repeat my request and testament not to leave this book in the hands of those who lack the necessary conditions (for carrying wisdom) and be parsimonious in introducing it to others." Such statements can also be found in others' works as well. For example, Ghazzali has called one of his books "Maznun an ghayr ahluha" (Kept away from the unworthy) and considered its content to be secret.
Mulla Sadra, too, has some books in this category in which he has addressed people of wisdom. In this regard, we can refer to al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah, Iksir al-'arifin, al-Waridat al-qalbiyyah, and Iqaz al-na'imin. However, he believes that even the contents of some of his other books must be kept hidden from the unworthy.
6. Interpretations
Mulla Sadra's interpretation of the Holy Qur'an and his commentary on Kulayni's Usul al-kafi can also be placed in the above five-fold categories; however, their contents and internal features indicates that they are different from his other books. His interpretive treatises which are written as commentaries on al-Nur and Ayat al-kursi verses or some short or middle-length Qur'anic verses must be considered to belong to another category in which the manifestations of the frenzy of love are more apparent. The commentary on the hadiths of Usul al-kafi can also be said to belong to a specific group of Mulla Sadra's works.
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Abstracts
Place of the Soul in the Philosophies of Aristotle and Mulla Sadra
Key words:
psychology soul
physics metaphysics
providence
The Meaning of Relation in Dawani's Philosophy with Reference to Aristotle and Mulla Sadra's Ontology
This paper is a review of the theory of relation propounded by the well-known philosopher of the Shiraz School, Muhaqqiq Dawani. It explains his specific ontology (oneness of being), based on which he considers himself to be one of the people of theosophical taste (dhawq ta'alluh). It has also been tried in this paper to compare this theory with one of Aristotle's famous teachings based on "homonyms in relation to the One" and "ishraqi (illuminative) relation" in Mulla Sadra. This analogy concludes that, as the ultimate origin for Aristotle is the only existent that, in the real sense of the word, is called an "existent", and other existents deserve to be called so only in relation to Him, in Dawani's philosophy the real existent is also the same "existence" (the truth), and other existents are called so only in the sense of things that bear a relation to existence (real existent). Clearly, this view presents a kind of ontological unity which is different from the graded unity discussed in Mulla Sadra's philosophy. This is because Dawani's theory indicates the oneness of being and the plurality of existents. However, Mulla Sadra's ontology represents the oneness of being and existents and, at the same time, emphasizes plurality. Although Aristotle does not say a word about "existence", much less about its unity, his ontology presents an image of secondary existents beside the most real existent, which is undoubtedly based on a fundamental difference in their modes of existence. It appears that, although the basic principles of the above-mentioned philosophers might seem different, one can have a positive view of the proximity between their perceptions, particularly those of Aristotle and Dawani, of the ontological meaning of relation and annexation.
Key words:
relation Ishraqi relation
commonality of being homonyms in relation to the One
priority in reality oneness of being
theosophical taste (dhawq ta'alluh) principle of presupposition
productive commensurability priority in truth
commensurability of the object and revenue rights
Concepts of "Time" and "Place" in Leibniz's Philosophy
In contrast to Newton's idea, the existence of an empty place or vacuum is impossible and in contradiction to Leibniz's accepted principles. He has presented some metaphysical and theological arguments on rejecting this issue in most of his works.
Key words:
vacuum absolute time and place
time relative time and place
place Leibniz
Newton
Reconciliation between Sinnan Synonymity and Sadrian identity concerning the Divine Attributes
Key words:
attributes essence
synonymity argument
identity believers
The Sadrian Approach to the Interpretation of the Qur'an
Although all of Mulla Sadra's work indicate a solid relationship between the Qur'an and demonstration, his interpretation of the Qur'an from among his other books enjoys a particular advantage in his Qur'anic approach. This paper examines the way Sadrian philosophy interprets the Qur'an. Deliberation over the meeting points of interpretation and philosophy, as the distinctive feature of his interpretation from those of others, can reveal the effect of philosophy on interpretation to us.
Mulla Sadra believes that explicit narration and complete unveiling are the two fundamental bases of interpretation. Accordingly, he favors neither inflexibility in words nor neglecting it. Rather, he maintains that one should cautiously observe the realities and the interior of meanings. In this paper, the writer has also referred to the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy and the quality of their use in the interpretation of the Qur'an. Mulla Sadra's approach to the Oneness of Godly Light and lack of passivity in the divine mercy and evil forms is based on the principiality and gradation of existence. In the trans-substantial motion, issues such as resurrection and change of species are analyzed. In his view, human beings are divided into different types based on the trans-substantial motion. The meaning of path, cause of death, referring to God, and the secret of immortality in Hell are among the issues propounded on the basis of this motion. Mulla Sadra maintains that the soul is the product of the trans-substantial motion of the body. Considering the abilities of the soul, the number of the doors of Heaven and Hell, the number of the angels of Hell, and the criterion for punishing acts develop a specific justification.
Key words:
the Qur'an interpretation
rational interpretation exegesis
Transcendent Philosophy principiality of existence
gradation of existence
Place of the Imaginal World in Suhrawardi's Philosophy
Key words:
Imaginal world revelation
imagination miracle
intermediate world matter
catharsis Judgment Day
Theory of Limit in Farabi
Farabi has dealt with the existence and whatness of limit from two perspectives of logic and philosophy and evaluated its epistemological aspect meticulously. Beside the term limit, he has also used some other words such as description, definiens, particular accident, and definition, each of which carries several meanings and, at the same time, indicates an acquired notional perception.
He explains the different meanings of limit, its kinds, levels, and component parts, as well as the mode of the commonality of some limits with demonstration. Concerning the acquisition of limit, Farabi presents his own innovative method and then refers to and criticizes the three methods of early philosophers. He believes that a limit that is attained through the approach of the human spirit to the world of creation does not portray the realities of possible things, is not a form including the essential features of an object, and does not reveal its quiddity. Rather, it is a knowledge that merely manifests the attributes and accidents of objects because it is based on sense perceptions. If the soul is polished with the theoretical intellect and faces the world of command, the divine intelligibles will be printed on it in the light of the divine emanation and the real limits of objects are discovered. He has frequently and explicitly said about the essence of the One that there is no limit for Almighty Truth, Who is the Absolute Being, and thus it is impossible to attain His reality. However, man possesses a primary and non-acquired knowledge of the necessity of His Existence through which the knowledge of His other attributes is possible for him.
Key words:
limit real and unreal limit
acquisition of limit liability to limit
lack of liability to limit
[1]. For example, in Usul al-kafi, chapter on Knowledge.
[2]. Ibid.