Mulla Sadra's Life, Works, and Philosophy 

Prof. S. M. Khamenei

al-Tanqih

al-Tanqih or Tanqih al-mantiq (in some inventories referred to as al-Tanqiyah, and by some called al-Luma'at al-mashriqiyyah) is one of the other profound and invaluable works of Mulla Sadra. It is one of his two books on logic.

The existing proofs in this work indicate that he wished to write a textbook which could be easily memorized by seminary students (and perhaps his children) and was free from any redundancies. In doing so, he modeled it on some other works such as Ibn Sina's al-Nijat and al-Isharat or Tusi's Tajrid or Tahdhib al-mantiq. Accordingly, he tried to explain the main issues in logic which can be lent to memory using the fewest number of phrases. At the same time, he had his eye on Illuminationist logic and remained loyal to his own principles and ideas in creating this book.

He has not referred to his other books here; however, given the features mentioned above, we can infer that he wrote this book before 1040 AH and perhaps during the 1030's while he was busily involved in teaching and training seminary students.

al-Asfar al-arba'ah

The greatest and most important philosophical book by Mulla Sadra is al-Asfar, which he himself sometimes called al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyyah, sometimes al-Asfar al-arba'ah al-'aqliyyah, and sometimes Kitabana al-kabir. This book has been rightly called the encyclopedia of Mulla Sadra's philosophy.

The phrase al-Asfar al-arba'ah means the four-fold journeys. As mentioned in the Introduction of this book, it has been adopted from the four spiritual journeys which are commonly referred to by Muslim gnostics. In fact, he considered this book as consisting of four mental and spiritual stages comparable to gnostics' four-fold journeys.

The title al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyyah was also used before him by some gnostics to refer to a gnostic philosophy derived from the Qur'an and perceived through divine inspirations and illuminations. The title of this book indicates that he was profoundly influenced by other gnostic books.

In spite of its length, one century after Mulla Sadra, this book stepped into in the realms of teaching, research, interpretation, and even translation. In Iran, particularly in Isfahan, some philosophers, such as Mulla Ali Nuri and Hakim Sabziwari, who taught it, wrote commentaries on it and interpreted it. It was even translated in the sub-continent of India into Urdu, which shows that it was a well-known book in philosophy circles and was taught there.

The effect of this book on the philosophies of the periods following it is itself an independent subject for a historical research and study of this work. The philosophies and philosophers of later periods owe a great debt to this invaluable treasure, which is considered a turning point in the history of philosophy not only in Iran but also in the region. However, we can still claim that it has not been introduced to others as much as it should.

* * *

We have talked, more or less, about the date of writing this book when referring to Mulla Sadra's other books. For example, we mentioned that he began writing this book, apparently, with its Introduction[1] at the end of his period of seclusion in the suburbs of Qum, before 1019 AH, possibly in about 1015 AH and perhaps shortly after that.

Nevertheless, based on the point mentioned in his other books, we can conclude that he wrote about the issues of motion, and the intellect and intelligible (the 3^rd volume of al-Asfar) in the last years of 1020's, that is, before 1030AH. As a result, the discussions of existence and quiddity (the 1^st and 2^nd volumes of al-Asfar) and the discussions of motion, and the intellect and intelligible (3^rd volume), which comprise the greatest part of the first journey of al-Asfar al-arba'ah, were written over ten to fifteen years. If we divide the total number of the pages of these three volumes, which does not even amount to 1500, to this time, we can say that Mulla Sadra wrote between 100 and 150 pages every year (and about 8 to 10 pages a month) of this book. This is unlikely because he was a capable, hard-working, and prolific scholar.

This analysis can also indicate that Mulla Sadra was in no hurry when writing al-Asfar and tried to complete it whenever he had the chance in the middle of writing his other works. The writing style of al-Asfar, the scattered ideas, and the repetitions and quotations of others' opinions and statements testifies to this position.

Another possibility, which we find stronger, is that he wrote the parts on existence and quiddity during a shorter time; however, he slowed down when writing the parts on motion, and the intellect, the intelligent, and the intelligible. It does not really make a difference if we assume that this slowness was due to his scientific occupations and journeys or to greater deliberation and meticulousness concerning complicated and intricate philosophical issues, particularly the two problems of motion, and the intellect and the intelligible, which are among Mulla Sadra's most important innovations and philosophical principles.

Nevertheless, the parts on natural issues in the first journey (4^th and 5^th volumes), which deals with issues such as substances and accidents, and the 2^nd journey of the four-fold journeys, which concerns particular theology, i.e., the divine essence, attributes, and acts, transcendence, and holiness, were written between 1030 and 1040 AH. [2]

In this period, Mulla Sadra spent some time in Qum, where his classes had the greatest number of students. Accordingly, we must assume that these four volumes were written over a relatively long time, and this hard-working philosopher was in no hurry to bring it to an end. This is because during that time he also wrote some other books. In about 1039 AH, he returned to Shiraz. Apparently, the journey of the soul of al-Asfar, as well as the discussions of the soul and resurrection were written at about the same time, although it is also possible that they were finished before 1044 or 1045 AH. The reason is that during these years he made his greatest efforts to complete his invaluable interpretation as well as his commentary on Usul al-kafi. Hence, we can simply estimate that al-Asfar was written over 25 to 30 years.

Concerning the division of this book into four journeys and their conformity to the four-fold spiritual journeys (al-Asfar al-arba'ah), we can also add that the issues of the first journey include existence, quiddity, motion, the intellect and the intelligible, and, unlike what is written in the old edition of this book, [3] even accidents and substances. The second journey includes the issues related to theodicy (presented in the 6^th and 7^th volumes). The journey of the soul is, in fact, the 3^rd journey. This has been confirmed by Mulla Ali Nuri's marginal notes. The fourth journey, the place of which cannot be left empty, is believed to be on resurrection.

However, the above point is not quite clear, and there are some other ideas in this regard. For example, due to his mental occupations and dispersion of notes, he might have neglected the initial principle, or, he might have considered mental mystic journeys the same as the journeys made by ordinary people, who, unlike the prophets, cannot reach the level of return to creation and remain in mortality, and reduced them to three journeys. Moreover, he might have considered the journey in essence (volume 6) as the second journey, the journey in attributes and acts (volume 7) as the third, and the journey of the soul as the fourth. However, he must have been to some extent flexible in this regard.

It was perhaps due to the above assumptions and probabilities, as well as lack of harmony in the discussed headings and chapters, that some scholars view the title of the book, i.e. al-Asfar al-arba'ah with skepticism and criticism. They claim that the title of this book is not appropriate for the order in which the issues have been discussed, and the parts and chapters therein are not in conformity with the four-fold mystic journeys.

 

Sharh usul al-kafi

This book is a philosophical-gnostic commentary on the hadiths of the chapter of Usul in al-Kafi, the invaluable book of the famous Shi'ite muhaddith, Kulayni. This book is considered one of the most important and oldest books on hadith. Sharh usul al-kafi can also be viewed, in a sense, as the essence and product of Mulla Sadra's philosophy of gnosis. This is because it was written during the last years of his life in 1040's in Shiraz, which indicates that this book manifests his practical and mental perfection. The reason is that, after spending a lifetime on research and writing tens of philosophical and gnostic books, as well as a Qur'anic interpretation, he began creating this work. In fact, because he knew that the end of his life was approaching, and his practical and scientific journeys were coming to an end, he felt that it was time to offer the fruit of all his scholarly and mystical life to the world.

As he himself has written,[4] he wrote this book in 1044 AH, i.e. when he was 66 years old or after that. It was most probably his last work. After this time, he began his commentary on al-Hujjat book of Usul al-kafi; however, he could not bring it to an end and wrote only a quarter or one fifth of it.

What stood between him and the completion of this work, which is one of the masterpieces of hadithi literature and commentaries on gnostic and Shi'i works and profound Islamic teachings, was nothing but death.

Apart from this book, Mulla Sadra sometimes wrote commentaries on hadiths in a scattered way. From among such works, we can refer to the following:

1. Commentary on the hadith: "I was an unknown and hidden treasure; I wished to be known; therefore, I created some creatures so that everyone would know Us."

2. Commentary on the hadith: "Men's spirits were created two thousand years before their bodies."

3. Commentary on the hadith: "Each human individual is like a mine holding gold and silver: (that is, each has his own particular characteristics).

4. Commentary on the  hadith: "People are sleeping; they wake up when they die."

The common tradition of that time was that scholars and researchers tried to write commentaries on certain hadiths, Qur'anic verses, or gnostic poems which they found difficult to understand. Sometimes, they also wrote commentaries in order to reject those written by others or to compete with other commentators. It is possible that seminary students and scholars sought Mulla Sadra's help with interpreting some of those complicated hadiths, and he might have written a treatise in this regard.

Some of his treatises can be considered as parts of his al-Asfar or other great books, e.g. Risalah al-mizaj, the Intellect and the Intelligible, Limmiyyah ikhtisas fi'l-falak, Mutashabihat al-ayat, and the like, which due to the needs of the time or lack of access to the original book, he extracted and presented with some modifications or new Introductions and Epilogues to the lovers and seekers of teaching and seminary students in order to satisfy their thirst.

 

Ajwibat

Writing an ajwibat or a collection of responses to philosophers and scientists and solving their problems is one of the characteristics of great scholars in various disciplines and mainly common among distinguished philosophers.

Mulla Sadra has left some works as ajwibat, which are now available, as follows:

 1- Ajwibat al-masa'il Shams al-Din Muhammed Gilani

This treatise has been written in response to the five philosophical-epistemological problems posed by Mulla Shams Gilani known as Mulla Shamsa, who was himself one of Mulla Sadra's contemporary philosophers. It is possible that he studied under Mir Damad.

2- Ajwibat al-masa'il awisah

The title of this work means "responses to difficult questions". This treatise was written in response to five complicated philosophical questions. It appears from the Introduction to it that the one asking the question was himself one of the philosophers of the time and one of Mulla Sadra's close friends, or, perhaps, one of his classmates when he was studying under Mir Damad. In the handwritten version of this book in Tehran University, Mulla Sadra introduces this person as Mulla Hussein or Mulla Muzaffar Hussein Kashani.

3- Ajwibat al-masa'il al-Nasiriyyah

This treatise was written in response to the difficult questions that, four centuries before him, Tusi, out of humility, had asked from one of his contemporary philosophers called Khwajah Shams al-Din Khusroshahi. Since the responses are not available, this philosopher might have left them unanswered.

Mulla Sadra responded to them in a treatise which is available under the title Ajwibat al-masa'il al-Nasiriyyah. Apparently, he had answered some or all of those questions when he was a young man; however, he modified his responses in this treatise.

4- Ajwibat al-masa'il b'az al-khullan

This work entails responses to five problems that one of Mulla Sadra's old students had sent to him and asked him to solve them. [5]

Concerning the date of writing these treatises, we should say that they were certainly written at different times. However, we can only base guesses at their dates on the references in the books themselves or the depths of the issues discussed therein.

The treatise written in response to Mulla Shamsa Gilani entails the following phrase in the second response: "And it has been examined in the right place..." This indicates that this treatise was preceded by his other works. Nevertheless, his answer to the fifth question about "the existence of spirits before the bodies" comparing to those given in his other books such as al-Asfar, Ta'liqat 'ala sharh hikmat al-ishraq, and al-Hikmat al-'arshiyyah, and some others is very weak and non-technical. This might indicate that this treatise was written in the first decades of the 11^th century.

However, based on a copy of this work in the handwriting by Mulla 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji[6] in 1034 AH in Qum in Ma'sumiyyah School, we can claim that the original treatise was written between 1030 and 1040 AH or very close to 1034 AH. This is because it was a custom at that time that immediately after a master wrote a book or treatise, his close students copied it for themselves.

Another treatise called al-Masa'il al-khamsah in the handwriting of Muhammed Baqi Ibn Zayn al-'Abedin has been written in the same time: Jamadi al-awwal 9, 1034 AH. [7]

In the Ajwibat treatise devoted to Mulla Muzaffar Kashani's problems, the responses are deeper and more mature. Here, concerning the issue of the soul's power, Mulla Sadra refers to his other inferential books in the first problem: "As we presented the necessary arguments in the right place in this regard". This indicates that it was written in later years.

In response to the fourth problem, he refers to Sharh al-hidayat al-athiriyyah, "as discussed in page 95", which we said was written before 1020 AH. However, in the same chapter, in relation to the issue of removal or survival of the forms of elements in compounds, he says, "The late Seyyed al-Mudaqqiqin followed them". If by this person he means Mir Damad, it indicates that the book was written after his death (1041 AH), unless he means Seyyed Sanad or somebody else.

Ajwibat al-Nasiriyyah must have been written in the last decade of his life because it appears from his sentences that it is the second time that he is responding to these problems. In fact, once he answers following the "discoursal" method, that is, in an insipid and inferential manner, and then he says, "This was a response that I would give following philosophers' method in the past, but now I have another way for responding this question." Then he answers it based on a gnostic method through arguments and inferences derived from the Qur'an.

There had been some people who were in relatively permanent contact and scientific negotiations with Mulla Sadra before the writing of this treatise. This must have been the case in 1010's and early 1030's AH, thus it was written after 1030 AH.

Overall, we can conclude that he wrote this Ajwibat when his fame had spread everywhere.

 

Iksir al-'arifin

This is a scientific book on the basis and premises of gnosis. Its name indicates that, by means of this book, gnostics can change the copper of their existence into gold and attain their optimal perfection. Some[8] scholars believe that this book is the translation of Jawdannameh by Muhammed Ibn AL-Hasan Maraghi Kashani, known as Baba Afzal, the famous gnostic and poet of the 7^th century. Mulla Sadra himself writes in the Introduction of this book, "I have adopted these points from the books of men of God. There are some issues that raise the admiration of true philosophers..."

Some are of the view that it is the same book as Siraj al-salikin, written in 1031 AH, which is the same time that Iksir al-'arifin was written. [9]

 

Al-Waridat al-qalbiyyah

It appears from the Introduction of al-Waridat al-qalbiyyah fi m'arifat al-rububiyyah that it is, in fact, an inventory of some of his hidden inspirations of the so-called divine contingencies of the heart which were emanated to him during his life until the time of writing this book. These inspirations have turned into philosophical-gnostic principles and issues and presented in a systematic and logical way in this book.

Mulla Sadra himself says in the Introduction, "I share with you some of the inspirations that I received by my heart, a drop of what I acquired from the source of emanation before it flows, and some of what has risen from my interior in the course of my mystic journey."

One of the characteristics of this treatise is its dignified and rhymed prose, which is unique although his pen is powerful and excellent in all of his Persian and Arabic books. In none of his works is his prose so smooth and perfect, which is an indication that he wrote it with extreme care and patience.

The reading of this treatise reminds the reader of the Nahj al-balaghah. In fact, this work is so much to the point and free from repetition and redundancy that one clearly perceives his spiritual and scientific power and mastery over philosophy, gnosis, and Arabic.

No reference has been made to the date of writing this treatise, either explicitly or implicitly. Neither is there any reference in it to his other works. The tone of his language is such as if he is an angel born for the scientific and practical guidance of semi-gnostics and novice wayfarers; he has come to teach them the divine and spiritual journeys, reveal to them the ways of becoming a "perfect guardian", and then go back to where he came from.

We understand from the appearance of this treatise that it has been written for specific readers, and it is perhaps a guidebook for graduates who, in order to spread wisdom and guide people concerning religious principles, go places both near and far. It is a collection of testaments providing remedies for their danger abound future, and is an eternal guide for the students of Sadrian School who have found the right path.

Given the above proofs, this treatise must have been written in 1030's AH (between 1028 and 1038 AH) in Qum. However, in the copy available in A'zam Mosque it is written that it was composed in 1023 AH. The writer wrote, "This book was completed ten years after its contents were written and organized. God Knows." [10]

 

Abstracts

 

 Language of the Qur'an as an Allegorical Language in Mulla Sadra's View

Gholamreza A'awani and Nasir Muhammedi

In this paper, the writers argue that, when speaking of God, otherworldly affairs, the Hereafter, and, in general, non-material issues, the Qur'an adopts an allegorical language. They also emphasize that allegorical language is the only means by which one can discuss these issues and understand the Qur'anic verses and metaphorical expressions. The perception of this language requires understanding the ontology of the world and attaining the knowledge of the spirit and reality of meaning and its allegory in different worlds. Through the spirit and truth of meaning, which is present in all of its manifestations and allegories, this language leads us towards a univocal language. Mulla Sadra calls it the language of true economy as opposed to Ash'arites' language of economy. When discussing the language of the Qur'an, Mulla Sadra also criticizes the "literal" language and the language of "code and allusion".

 Key words:

language of the Qur'an                                economical method

metaphorical expressions                              univocality

allegory                                                       allegorical interpretation      

 

Ibn Khaldun and Philosophy

Muhammed Ilkhani

Ibn Khaldun followed Ghazzali in his theological criticism of philosophy, attention to religious beliefs, and considering formal logic as a science independent from the Peripatetic metaphysics. However, he stood at a distance from him in terms of his epistemological criticism of philosophy. He believed that philosophy was not enough for man's eternal and supernatural happiness and limited it to the domain of physics. His criticism of philosophy was based on empirical knowledge, and he avoided abstract concepts in this regard. In this way, his ideas are similar to William of Ockham, the English thinker of the 14^th century. Nevertheless, unlike Ockham's criticisms, which created an independent philosophical trend in Western philosophy, Ibn Khaldun's critical ideas of philosophy remained incomplete in Islamic philosophy.

 Key words:

philosophy                                                   Peripatetic Philosophy

logic                                                            ishraq (illumination)           

theology                                                      gnosis

transmission                                                Shari'ah

 

 A New Account of the Tripartite Division of Being Based on the Transcendent Philosophy

Mehdi Golparwar Ruzbehani and Seyyed Muhammed Yusef Thani

The concepts embedded in the tripartite division of being - necessity, possibility, and impossibility - are posed in logic in relation to propositions. In philosophy, these three-fold concepts are used to divide existents into two types, the necessary being and the possible being, and, following it, to divide non-beings into two types: possible beings and impossible beings. This paper demonstrates that, based on the theory of the principiality of existence, the above divisions are refuted, and indicates that each being is a necessary being; each concept is a possible being, and each non-being is an impossible being. Even the distinction between the "by essence" and "by another" considerations of the tripartite division of being in attributing existence to the three groups of existent, concept, and non-existent cannot create a change in the above analysis. In this way, employing the concepts of the tripartite division of being lacks the expected efficiency in classifying existents (and also non-existents). The Transcendent Philosophy has replaced them with the concepts of indigent possibility and ontological richness, which will be discussed in this paper.

  Key words:

Tripartite division of being                            indigent possibility

necessary being                                           principality of existence

possible being                                              impossible being

  

An Evaluation of Mulla Sadra's Criticisms of Ibn Sina and Early Philosophers in the Demonstration of the Oneness of the Necessary Being

'Aziz Alizadeh Saleteh

 Mulla Sadra has referred to his specific argument concerning the demonstration of the Oneness of Almighty Necessary as the celestial argument. He has also emphasized its superiority to the other arguments propounded by early philosophers, such as Ibn Sina, in this regard. While scrutinizing them to a great extent, he does not consider any of them as a perfect argument free from any kind of defect. He believes that if we wish to view them as perfect arguments, we should try to remove their defects. Therefore, he suggests certain reasons in order to improve and complete them and argues that even Ibn Sina's argument needs some correction. In this paper, the writer has tried his best in order to show that, unlike the arguments of other philosophers, that of Ibn Sina, along with its various interpretations, is needless of Mulla Sadra's correction and modification. In fact, he intends to demonstrate that Ibn Sina's argument enjoys the necessary efficiency for demonstrating the Oneness of Almighty Necessary.

  Key words:

oneness                                                       celestial

simplicity                                                     pureness

necessity

  

Imagination, Prophethood, and Politics in Ibn Sina's Philosophy

Ahmed Bostani

One can view the political issues propounded in Ibn Sina's works from different perspectives and, considering the methodological approach adopted, possibly arrive at various conclusions. The present paper discusses some of the political aspects of Ibn Sina's philosophy from a specific point of view. The writer has tried to highlight his place in the history of Islamic political philosophy by mainly focusing on the issue of imagination. The plan of devising a "prophetic philosophy" with Farabi particularly began with writing his book Madina fadilah. Here, by expanding the functions of the imaginal faculty, Ibn Sina tried to explain the phenomenon of prophethood and its relationship with philosophy and politics. His philosophy must be studied within a framework which Farabi founded and, after Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi developed by devising the Illuminative philosophy. The role of Ibn Sina, as a philosopher who expanded Farabi's thoughts and posed the two issues of "conjecture" and "imagining the souls of the spheres", is quite noteworthy in this regard. In this way, he opened the window to a way which two centuries later led to the development of Illuminative Philosophy, one of the basic concepts of which is the world of imagination. 

Key words:

Prophethood                                                imagination

Oriental philosophy                                      Islamic political philosophy

 

Unity in Dawani

Hussein Muhammed Khani

 Undoubtedly, Dawani is one of the most prominent figures that came to the world of being after the Mongols' attack on Iran (which led to the annihilation of philosophy and culture in this country) and in the time interval between the development of the illuminative School of Philosophy and the formation of the Transcendent Philosophy (by Mulla Sadra). Dawani's significance lies not only in his numerous writings but also in his benefiting from a kind of independence in his thoughts, which led to the development of a number of innovative ideas. In addition to being famous as the commentator of Shaykh al-Ishraq's works, he had also complete dominance over Ibn Sina's works and, in many case, he sought help from his words in order to explain his points. The other point that we will deal with in this paper is the effect of accepting gnostic works on his thoughts.

Perhaps, we can say that the most important of Dawani's ideas is the one related to the unity of being (which he himself refers to as dhawq ta'alluh or the theologian's taste). He has tried to not only bring his other thoughts in harmony with it but also use it to demonstrate other issues. When discussing the issues of existence and quiddity, cause and effect, etc., Dawani argues based on dhawq ta'alluh. He also resorts to it when demonstrating the other aspects of oneness (oneness in the necessity of existence, oneness in acts, and oneness in attributes). Accordingly, after explaining the unity of being in his view, we will present his words concerning the other types of unity.

 Key words:

unity of being                                               dhawq ta'alluh

derivative                                                    origin of derivation

attributing                                                    existence

ishraqi relation                                            relation

 

 

Levels of the Intellect in Aristotle and Ibn Sina

Ali Asghar Ja'fari Walani   

The study of the history of the development of the issue of intellect is one of the most important issues in the history of philosophy for all philosophers and researchers in related fields. As we know, in Greece, Aristotle was called the intellect of Plato's classes and his name was inseparable from intellect.

Aristotle's ambiguous interpretation of intellect motivated the commentators of his works to present a number of innovative solutions when reviewing the issue of intellect from the viewpoint of Aristotle. The high station of this issue in the works of Muslim philosophers as the axis of wisdom and philosophical thoughts reveals the same conditions. This is because the discussion of intellect and its levels is closely related to determining man's station in the world, the soul's destiny in eternal life, the relation between the Truth and creation, reviewing man's knowledge and the soul-body relation, and solving the issue of resurrection.

  Key words:

intellect                                                       levels of the intellect

Ibn Sina                                                      Aristotle