Mulla Sadra's Life, Works, and Philosophy 

Prof. S. M. Khamenei

Interpretation of al-Hadid chapter

Because of Mulla Sadra's great scientific and philosophical belief in the Qur'an and his closeness to it, when he began to write his philosophical books, he started with interpretation as a main undertaking. His first interpretive work was the interpretation of al-Hadid chapter.

There is no reference in this work to his period of seclusion and the command of his Hidden Commander to the writing of the interpretation of this chapter, so we cannot assume that, like al-Asfar, al-Mabda' wal ma'ad, al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah, and his other books, he wrote it after his period of seclusion and running away from the created to the Creator. Rather, it can be inferred from the content of this work that he wrote it in an undesirable and chaotic atmosphere. Hence, we can guess that he wrote his interpretation of al-Hadid chapter before his period of seclusion in Qum and Kahak, i.e. during the period of his residence in Shiraz.

At the end of his interpretation of this chapter, Mulla Sadra writes:

The above-mentioned points include what my tired mind has inferred from this chapter. I had a very limited time for writing this work and suffered from very difficult conditions. Moreover, ignorance was spread at an epidemic level all around us at that time, and the station of mean and ignorant people was much higher than that of noble and honest ones. In fact, the cities and houses were empty of those who know the value of the jewel of secrets and true teachings which pour into the hearts of servants of God from among the teachings of eschatology and theology.

I take my complaints to God against a period in which ignorance, enmity, malice, corruption, and jealousy are widespread and the way to knowledge and nobility is blocked; a period in which, because of the satanic temptations surrounding them, people avoid the learning of the truth, rebel, and call the trap used for hunting the laymen religion and follow it ....

From the Preface, Introduction, and the different parts of the book, it appears that this book is a translation of his unveilings of this chapter which he had received through inspiration and seen their beautiful faces in the light of Godly illumination by the eye of heart. Hence, he could not help writing them as a gift for his beloved ones. Therefore, he took the pen and put them on the paper; however, in order to maintain the tradition of interpretation and follow the habit of other interpreters, he did not ignore the words of others in this regard and quoted a summary of them in this work.

All in all, all these pieces of evidence can testify that he wrote this book before his period of seclusion and residence in Qum and Kahak before or in about 1015 AH.

As mentioned before, this is also considered his first interpretive work. He has directly referred to this point in some other places and said,

The first chapter of the Qur'an that I interpreted was this very al-Hadid chapter. I did this because of my extreme enthusiasm and love for expressing what God had inspired me with and what He had taught me concerning subtle secrets, noble pieces of news, and amazing scientific facts.[1]

After this, which he considers one of the rare and strange events of his past life during his youth, he refers to the order of some of his other interpretations and says, "Two or more years after finishing the interpretation of that chapter, some other chapters, and some other verses such as Ayat al-Kursi and al-Nur, I came across this hadith."[2]

On the other hand, we know that Mulla Sadra wrote his interpretation of Ayat al-Kursi a few years after 1020 AH (between 1020 and 1026 AH) in Qum. [3] Therefore, we can conclude that he wrote his interpretation of al-Hadid chapter before the interpretations of Ayat al-Kursi and al-Nur chapter (written in 1030 AH). Although his sentence, "When the interpretation of this chapter and some others came to an end, ..." apparently indicates that there was not a great time interval between the interpretations of al-Hadid chapter, Ayat al-Kursi, and al-Nur, as there was certainly an at least five-year interval between the interpretations of Ayat al-Kursi and al-Nur, it does not seem wrong to consider the same interval between the interactions of al-Hadid chapter in the years before 1020 AH before going to Qum or, possibly, during his residence there.

* * *

Now that we have referred to interpretation, it is useful to cast a glance at Mulla Sadra's other interpretive works.

Interpretations of Ayat al-Kursi and al-Nur Verse

Since he has directly referred in these two interpretations to the time of their writing, we know that the interpretation of Ayat al-Kursi was written after 1020 Ah (2 or 5 years later) [4] and after al-Mabda' wal-ma'ad. [5] The interpretation of al-Nur was written in Rabi' al-thani in 1030 AH.

The Interpretations of Ya-sin and al-Tariq

As the writer has directly stated at the end of the interpretation of Ya-sin chapter, he wrote it in 1030 AH. However, in this book he is also dissatisfied with the people of his time and complains about the undesirable period in which he lives. He moans about an old scar on his heart and uses the soot of the fire inside him as the ink of his pen to write down the words of his ailing heart on paper.

Moreover, he wrote the interpretation of al-Tariq chapter in the month of Rajab in 1030 AH, i.e. three months after the interpretation of al-Nur. He might have even written his interpretations of al-Zilzal, al-A'la, and al-Waqi'ah in the same year or a few months later. In the introduction to the interpretation of al-Tariq he writes, "So, I decided to organize it in the same way as other similar works."

The Interpretation of al-Sajdah Chapter

He has not explicitly referred to the writing of this work; however, in the interpretation of Ya-sin chapter, he refers indirectly to al-Sajdah and points out that he wrote the interpretation of this chapter before that of Ya-sin chapter and says, "In al-Sajdah chapter reference has been made to the general principle of 'mutilated words'." Thus, it might have been written in about 1030 AH or before that. However, in the introduction to the interpretation of al-Sajdah chapter, while referring to the name of some interpretations, he also refers to that of Ya-sin chapter and says, "Therefore, I moved the veils away from some of the chapters and verses of the Qur'an, such as Ayat al-Kursi and al-Nur, Ya-sin, al-Hadid, al-Waqi'ah, al-Tariq, al-Zilzal, and other chapters."[6]

If no mistake has taken place, either the interpretations of these two chapters were written at the same time or the introduction to the interpretation of al-Sajdah was written after the interpretation itself.

Moreover, in the interpretation of this chapter, Mulla Sadra, concerning the revivification of bodies, uses the phrase, "some of our books and interpretations", and this issue has been extensively discussed in the interpretations of al-Zilzal and al-Waqi'ah chapters.

In this work, he refers to his al-Mabda' wal ma'ad, which shows that it was written after this book (written in 1019 AH).

The Interpretation of al-Jumuah Chapter

The date of writing this work has not been given; however, evidence suggests that it was among his later works. For example, here he refers to the interpretations of Ayat al-Kursi (1023 AH), al-Nur verse (1030 AH), and al-Hadid chapter and the book of al-Asfar, and says, "From what we frequently repeated in the explanation and demonstration of the secrets of some verses, it becomes clear that ..." [7] Moreover, in the introduction to the interpretation of al-Sajdah chapter in which he has mentioned the interpretations of some Qur'anic verses, he has not referred to the name of al-Jumuah verse.

In the interpretation of this chapter (4th ishraq), concerning the cause of the occurrence of natural death to human beings, he refers to al-Asfar and says, "Beware that in some of the chapters of al-Asfar, we said that..." This issue has been mentioned in the chapter on the soul (the 8th and 9th volumes). Our studies indicate that this chapter must have been one of this philosopher's last works, which he possibly wrote in Shiraz.

The Interpretation of al-Fatihah Chapter

Although in the formal order of Mulla Sadra's interpretations, that of al-Fatihah chapter is the first one, as we saw, it is not really his first interpretive work. Likewise, the interpretation of al-Baqarah chapter is not the second one. It is, in fact, the last of them and, as we will explain next, he wrote it at the end of his life.

In this work, references have been made to his other books, which can help us in knowing about the date of their writing. For example, in this interpretation he has referred to the names of al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah,[8] al-Huduth al-'alam, [9] the third volume of al-Asfar, [10] and even al-Mafatih al-qayb. As we mentioned before, the first three books were written before 1030 AH.

Another reliable piece of evidence is referring the issue of "the creation of the spheres in six days" to his other interpretations.

When interpreting the phrase "the God of the worlds" in al-Hamd chapter, he says, "And it will be known why He created 'the spheres, the earth, and what is between them' in six days, as we will explain later." [11] He has interpreted this verse in al-Sajdah chapter, and as mentioned before, he wrote the interpretation of this chapter in about 1030 AH. If we consider the morpheme used to refer to the near future in Arabic as the criterion, he wrote the interpretation of al-Hamd chapter a little sooner than that of al-Sajdah chapter and almost at the same time with the interpretations of Ayat al-Kursi, al-Waqi'ah, al-Zilzal and not in 1030 AH. As pointed out in the part on al-'Arshiyyah, it was even written before that time because in this book, which he wrote before 1030 AH, he refers to the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter. [12]

* * *

The Interpretation of al-Baqarah Chapter

As we saw, Mulla Sadra was fascinated by the Qur'an and Qur'anic teachings. He searched for the Transcendent Philosophy all over it, and, like a skilful diver, looked for his favorite jewel among thousands of them, grasped it, removed all dust from it, and displayed it in the mirror of his words.

He started his interpretive writing with the interpretation of al-Hadid chapter. Apparently, he did not choose it according to his free will, rather, because of an inspiration that he has referred to in another place. [13] We believe that he received this inspiration not in Qum, but before going there in Shiraz. However, every once in a while, these inspirations led to the writing of the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter, he decided to "pull his Dholfaghar (sword) out of its sheath and speak the words out of his throat" and write a complete and comprehensive interpretation so that his healing but scattered Qur'anic manuscripts turn into a healing place in which all the luminous Qur'anic verses and chapters ornamented with later inspirations are available to all the lovers of the realities of Qur'anic teachings.

He has also mentioned this personal thought and wish in the introduction to the interpretation of al-Sajdah chapter and said,

I hope that God gives me the power to write a big and comprehensive book of interpretation that no prominent scholar has ever seen before and the thought of which (or one similar to it) has never occurred to any one, although the hardships of time have greatly scarred my heart.[14]

Finally, this wish became a reality and this lover of the Qur'an began the writing of a big and comprehensive interpretation by starting the interpretation of al-Baqarah chapter. However, death did not allow him to complete it.

It is commonly believed that he started the interpretation of al-Baqarah chapter in the last decade of his life in Shiraz. Although it appears from its style that it was written after the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter, as mentioned above, even at the time of writing the interpretation of al-Sajdah chapter, he had not written the interpretation of al-Baqarah, either, unless it is claimed that he talked about a complete interpretation and not that of this chapter. However, since he stopped the interpretation of al-Baqarah chapter when he came to its 65th verse, we can be almost sure that his death in about 1045 AH (or 1050 AH) was the reason for this untimely halt in interpretation.

al-Mafatih al-Qayb

This book, which Mulla Sadra himself sometimes called al-Mafatih al-qaybiyyah, is one of the most important of his works. He wrote it as an introduction and preface to his interpretation of the Qur'an. It can also be called "the philosophy of interpretation" or "the logic of the Qur'an".

In this book, we are exposed to Mulla Sadra's philosophical and theological ideas openly and without being limited by the common philosophical moulds and rational inferences. If someone being detested by the common and traditional schools of philosophy seeks a philosophy that is both rooted in the Qur'an and hadith and lacks the shortcomings of the words of some sufists, he must consider this book as what he has always been looking for. This is because he will find nothing in this book, which is the product of the divine inspirations that he received by his luminous heart over a long period of time, but the words of the Qur'an, the Prophet (pbuh), and the Infallibles.

In the introduction to this book, he says,

For a long time I had desired to express the meanings that I had perceived from the Qur'an, but I had my doubts in this regard and always took a step forward and, then, one backward. The conditions of the time also stopped me from doing this because of the misconduct and ill intentions of contemporary hermits. Moreover, no sign came from the hidden.

Finally, the doors were opened to me, and an order came to my heart from the Commander of the Unseen World to stand up and present some of the jewels that I had found to friends. Hence, I started writing a book in which the "principles" of benefiting from the Qur'an are given in codes, and, in a reaction to the many interpreters who only pay attention to the surface of words, I left the key of understanding the interpretation of the interior and essence of Qur'anic verses in trust with knowledge-seekers.[15]

It appears from the introduction to Mafatih al-qayb that he started writing it at the same time with al-Asfar, perhaps, in order to introduce and present the heavenly (ultra-transcendent) Qur'anic wisdom and philosophy and the necessary principles for the interpretation of the Qur'an and learning its meanings to its enthusiasts, alongside the Transcendent Philosophy in the sense of inferential philosophy. However, a study and comparison of al-Asfar and al-Mafatih reveals the opposite, particularly because the writer himself has referred to the date of writing al-Mafatih in the book itself.

In this book, he has briefly referred to its date of writing as follows:[16] "Ten years before I was fifty years old, I learnt it from those who sought them." [17] Nevertheless, we can infer two meanings from the Arabic version of this sentence, first, "Ten years ago, ... when I was fifty years old, ...", and, second, "Ten years before now that I am fifty years old." Based on the first assumption, he wrote this book when he was sixty years old, i.e., in 1039 or 1040 AH, and, based on the second, he wrote it in 1030 (1029) AH.

We believe that the second assumption is closer to reality because we have some evidence that confirms it. When interpreting, "From Satan, which has been driven out of God's Presence, I seek refuge by Him" (the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter, which was also written in about 1030 AH), he refers to the name of Mafatih al-qayb. This shows that it was written before the interpretation of this chapter and before 1030 AH. This book has also been mentioned in another place of this interpretation, and this is consistent with the writing of Mafatih in 1029 AH (when the writer was 50 years old). [18] He has also referred to this book in the interpretation of the 55th verse of al-Baqarah chapter and said, "What must be said to the people of insight has been explained in al-Mafatih." However, the interpretation of this chapter is one of the works that he wrote towards the end of his life in Shiraz. Moreover, at the end of the fourth journey of al-Asfar, [19] which we believe he wrote during the early years of his stay in Shiraz or, the latest, in the last years of 1030's AH (in about 1035-1040 AH), he mentions this book and says, "Each of those types and the quality of inferring them from the Qur'an have been given in al-Mafatih al-qaybiyyah."

The problem that remains is that in Mafatih (p. 248), reference has been made to the glosses and annotations of Sharh-i hikmat al-ishraq. In these glosses he has referred to the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter (p. 379), and this can be a sign that al-Ta'liqat was written between Mafatih al-qayb and the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter. If we assume that al-Mafatih was written before 1030 AH (or 1029 AH) and the interpretation of al-Fatihah after that, al-Ta'liqat must have been written, e.g. in 1030 AH.

Here, we are dealing with a vicious circle. Previously, we said that the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter way apparently written after 1029 AH (when Mafatih was written), and Ta'liqat 'ala sharh hikmat al-ishraq, if he has referred to it in the former, must have been written after it. Now, how can we believe that the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter (in which he has referred to Mafatih) was written after Mafatih?!

However, it is also possible that when he began to write a comprehensive interpretation of al-Baqarah chapter, Mulla Sadra revised the interpretation of al-Fatihah chapter. That might be what has led some to assume that it was written after Ta'liqat 'ala hikmat al-ishraq.

* * *

 

 Abstracts

The Rational Beauty and Ugliness of Acts in Mulla Sadra

Seyyed Sadr al-Din Tahiri

Not only thinkers but also ordinary people agree that the role of ethics and its importance and effects in human life are undeniable. However, among scholars, philosophers, particularly philosophers of ethics, are the only people who seriously and extensively discuss the fundamental bases of ethics. They, too, in spite of all their disputes concerning peripheral issues, have no disagreement regarding the crucial role of the institution of ethics in determining one's fate and destiny.

One of the important issues in the philosophy of ethics which has led to some disagreements among philosophers, and which other philosophical groups, such as theologians, have also dealt with is the criterion for the ethical goodness and badness or "beauty and ugliness" of various acts.

In this paper, after giving an introduction and an important explanation about some of the common terms in relation to this discussion, the writer provides a short report of the ideas of Islamic theologians and Peripatetic philosophers so that the content of the discussion and its historical process of development are clarified and the ground is paved for the perception of Mulla Sadra's idea in this regard. Then his view of the beauty and ugliness of acts is indirectly inferred from his ideas concerning other issues. Unfortunately, we do not have access to his direct opinion on this topic.

 

 

Key words:

rational beauty and ugliness Mu'tazilites

religious beauty and ugliness Shi'ism

Ash'arites the Transcendent Philosophy

application relativity

 

The Ontological Trans-Substantial Motion in the Arc of Ascent and Descent

Monireh Palangi

In this paper, by a short review of the meaning of the trans-substantial motion in Mulla Sadra's ontological philosophy, and by paying attention to the elements that are used in explaining the trans-substantial motion, particularly the world soul, the writer concludes that this motion is not merely meaningful in the arc of ascent and based on the Aristotelian definition of motion, that is, the specific Aristotelian concepts of "potency and act". Rather, it has such a vast meaning that one can refer to the trans-substantial motion, i.e. ontological motion, in the arc of descent, too. Basically, in a philosophy which also deals with the arc of descent, one cannot justify motion only in the arc of ascent, particularly when considering that motion originates in life and is an essential feature of existence. In the rest of the paper, the writer briefly reviews Mulla Sadra's philosophical psychology in the two arcs of being by focusing on the relationship between the human existence and motion in these two arcs. Of course, this focus is only to remind us of Mulla Sadra's belief in the parallelism of the levels and worlds of being in the arcs of ascent and descent and leads us in the course of discussion to the intended purpose.

 

Key words:

trans-substantial motion love

arc of descent enthusiasm

arc of ascent love-oriented motion

soul resurrection

the world soul potency and act

life plurality

otherness

 

 Causality in Jalal al-Din Dawani and Mulla Sadra's Philosophy

Abdulrazzaq Hisamifar

In his al-Zura', Dawani analyzes the issue of causality. Concerning the cause-effect relation, he speaks as if the existence of effect in his philosophy is both the existence of inhering existence and copulative existence. Hence, he has created a confusion of meanings here. When criticizing Dawani's philosophy regarding causality, Mulla Sadra deals with the part of his interpretations which is in conformity with inhering existence and keeps silent about the part which is in conformity with copulative existence and in which he has referred to the issue of causality as tasha'un. He himself propounded the ontological dependence of the effect on the cause by posing the theory of "indigence possibility and ontological indigence". In his view, the existence of effect is the same as relation to and dependence on the cause. However, the identity of the existence of cause and relation to cause had also been propounded in Peripatetic Philosophy, but the difference was that Peripatetics saw the dependence of effect on cause in the effect's quiddity, while the followers of the Transcendent Philosophy saw it in its existence. Moreover, in Peripatetic Philosophy, we can allow some independence from the cause for the effect, while in the Transcendent Philosophy the effect depends on the cause in every respect, and the relation between them is of the type of illuminative (ishraqiyyah) relation. In this paper, through an analysis of the views of Jalal ad-Din Dawani and Mulla Sadra concerning causality, the writer tries to show that both of them are of the same idea concerning the gnostic theory of the individual unity of being. This theory has not been coherently stated in Dawani's interpretations; however, it has been completely elaborated in those of Mulla Sadra.

 

Key words:

cause effect

independent existence inhering existence

copulative existence ontological indigence

necessary possible

 

The Relation between Existence and Quiddity in the Philosophies of Aristotle and Ibn Sina

Reza Akbarian and Suhrab Haqiqat

In his philosophy, Aristotle, on the one hand, has created a close relation between existence and substance so that he can reduce questions about existence to those about substance, and, on the other hand, believes in the substance–essence relation. That is why it is very difficult in his philosophy to distinguish existence, substance, and essence from each other. This has led experts on Aristotle to wonder if there is a distinction between existence and essence in his philosophy. Moreover, they ask, if there is any distinction, is it merely a mental/logical/epistemological one, or whether there is an objective/metaphysical/real one as well?

In this paper, we intend to show that what we see in Aristotle's works is only a mental or subjective distinction between existence and essence. Therefore, there is no need to a metaphysical one, nor could he believe in such a distinction. We will also discuss that, in the world of Islam, Farabi and Ibn Sina, by moving from the Aristotelian mental distinction to the metaphysical distinction between existence and quiddity, managed to present a novel interpretation and explanation of ontology, cosmology, and theology so that we can new speak about an independent philosophical system for Muslims.

 

 

Key words:

existence quiddity

excess of existence to quiddity occurrence of existence to quiddity

Ibn Sina Aristotle

 

 

An Explanation of the Unity between Cosmology and the Philosophy of Mystic Journey in Rumi's View

Mahmud Shaykh

By describing Rumi's views concerning the world and with reference to issues such as similarity and purification, the creation and createdness of the world, the unity of existence, and the rules dominating the world, including permanent change, the battle of contraries, the system of the eater and the eatable, the receptacle and the received, and form and meaning in Mathnawi, this paper reveals that Rumi's cosmology was completely consistent with his practical and ethical system. Although he is influenced by Ibn Arabi's theories in most cases, unlike his followers, he never forgets about the world of act and describes it in a way that clarifies the Sufi theories of spiritual struggle and mystic journey.

Rumi divides man and the world into the two parts of form and meaning: man's form perceives the form of the world, and his meaning perceives the meaning of the world, which he interprets as the truth. In this way, in order to perceive the world, man must reach the knowledge of the world of the soul and a unity with it through changing his senses from those of appearances to the senses of the interior. When describing either the world of meaning or the world of form, Rumi never forgets the philosophy of motion and perfection: the world of matter is the world of opposites, and there is always a ghastly battle among them.

 

 

Key words:

Rumi the world

Man the philosophy of gnostic journey

becoming

 

The Semantic and Verbal Nature of Revelation in Mulla Sadra

Marziyah Akhlaqi

The word revelation and its derivatives have various meanings and functions; however, "a fast and secret explanation" embraces all of them. In the analysis of revelation various theories have been presented concerning the revealed knowledge and its source, the characteristics of the prophet as the receiver of revelation and the quality of receiving it, and finally the semantic and verbal nature of revelation. In this regard, we can refer to the traditional and modern theory of deniers, the rational or philosophical, gnostic, psychological, sociological, and religious theories. Today's researchers have also dealt with this issue.

After studying these theories, the writer has concluded that either Mulla Sadra's philosophical school has been ignored in this regard or his related theories have been classified under rational or philosophical ones. However, almost all writers have maintained that the rational theory of revelation is based on Peripatetic Philosophy (that is, the ideas of Farabi and Ibn Sina). Hence, by choosing these theories as the basic presuppositions of this paper, she has tried to examine the semantic and verbal nature of revelation from Mulla Sadra's viewpoint. In her study, the direct statements extracted from Mulla Sadra's works clearly indicate that he has taken some effective steps in this regard by establishing a harmony between reasoning, gnosis, and the Qur'an and demonstrated his claim that they are the harmonious elements of a collection. As a result, because of the comprehensive and profound approach of this theologian-philosopher to all other theological, philosophical, gnostic, and religious approaches, none of the contradictions rooted in their one-sided and uni-dimensional viewpoints can be witnessed in his approach.

 

 

Key words:

revelation revealed knowledge

prophet prophetic wisdom

verbal and semantic nature

 

 Philosophy of Art and the Place of Imagination from the Perspective of Islamic Philosophers

Hussein Hashimnejad

 The philosophy of art explains the philosophical bases of art. Some of the fundamental questions that this discipline deals with are: what is art? And, what is the origin of art? As the origin of artistic works, imagination is considered one of the pillars and constitutive elements of art. Islamic philosophers, particularly Mulla Sadra, have paid special attention to imagination and its ontology. According to Islamic philosophers, in addition to the faculty of imagination, which is an area of the human soul and is called the conjunctive imagination, there is a world out of man's existence which is called the world of disjunctive imagination. There is a kind of connection and harmony between these two worlds. Moreover, they believe that imitation is one of the main bases of art. Accordingly, Islamic philosophy has presented some new and innovative interpretations of imitation which are unprecedented in previous schools of philosophy.

This paper initially deals with the nature of art and the philosophy of art in brief. Then it presents a relatively extensive discussion of imagination and its place in art from the viewpoint of Islamic philosophers. Finally, it discusses "imitation" and Islamic philosophers' transcendent perception of this issue.

 

 

Key words:

art disjunctive imagination

beauty conjunctive imagination

imagination imitation

faculty of representation