The style of poetry known as Indian (sometimes also called Isfahani style) had two important features: expressing novel meanings by means of simple words and being heedless of literary figures of speech. It was developed as a reaction to the Iraqi style of Timurid era, which lacked both the eloquence of Khurasani style and the fluency of the Iraqi style of the 7th to 9th centuries. The Indian style was, in fact, started with Khajoo, Hafiz, and Jami; however, the difference was that it sacrificed language for meaning. Nevertheless, the extreme verbosity of the poets residing in India during the last years of Safawid era resulted in Persian lyrics' assuming a puzzle-like nature and losing their delicacy. This defect, on the one hand, and the weakness of some Indian style poets or pseudo-poets of later centuries, on the other hand, led to a return - not naturally - to the Iraqi style of poetry.Therefore, India was neither the birthplace of this style nor played a role in its perfection. Accordingly, we can say that it might have been rightfully called the Isfahani style.Whatever defects it suffers from, we must admit that the Indian style of poetry demands its followers to be innovative in terms of the content of their poems. Here, there is no room for imitating other poets' poems or borrowing from other works. Therefore, unlike the content of poems in other styles, one can find so many novel ideas and concepts in this style that he can collect all of them in an encyclopedia.Fayyad followed the Indian style and managed to compete successfully with other poets that wrote poems in this style. However, as mentioned before, in comparison to Hazin's poetry, his is to some extent void of passion, frenzy of love, sweetness, and charm. Fayyad was skillful in creating all types of poetry and one of the few poets who could write odes, lyrics, and quatrains equally well. His prose was eloquent in both Persian and Arabic. Of course, today we find the common prose style of his time very complicated.According to Nasrabadi, his Diwan consists of about 12000 couplets. It we assume that he started writing poetry when he was 20, and if he had only 12000 couplets when he was 70 years old, he must have written 30 8-couplet lyrics a year and 30 couplets a month. This seems very little in comparison to poets such as Sa'ib, who is said to have created about 100,000 couplets. We can infer from this point that, unlike many poets, he was not devoted to poetry very much. In fact, he created his poems when he was extremely excited or passionate or when he intended to advise others, praise someone, or answer people's questions.Books and TreatisesFayyad Lahiji has left us some invaluable works on philosophy and theology. Some of the famous ones have been published and are, more or less, used as textbooks. However, due to unknown reasons, they have not been received the attention they really deserve, and his succeeding masters and philosophers have not studied his books as carefully and deeply as they should. Therefore, it is likely that some of the ideas and views that are attributed to him are against what he truly believed in.Some of his books which were intended for public use and, particularly, for the king and his courtiers were written in simple Persian. However, his scientific books that addressed seminary students were written in difficult Arabic and reveal his superiority in philosophy and gnosis over his contemporaries.His most famous books include the following.
1. Shawariq al-ilham, a commentary on Tusi's Tajrid al-kalam, in Arabic.
2. and 3. Goharmorad and a summary of it, called Sarmayeh iman, on the principles of belief and theological issues from a philosophical point of view, in Persian.
4. Treatise of Tashrifat, on the principles of government in view of Islam and Islamic gnosis, published more than once in Persian.
5. Mashariq al-ilham, a commentary on Tajrid al-kalam. It is said to be other than Shawariq al-ilham.
6. Commentary on Suhrawardi's Hayakil al-nur, on defending philosophers against Ghazzali and those who claim to understand philosophy.
7. Glosses on Tusi's Sharh al-isharat (chapter on physics). Ashtiyani has presented parts of this work in his A Selection of the Works of Iranian Philosophers.
8. Treatise on the principiality of the making of existence. He had promised the writing of this treatise in his Shawariq.
9. Treatise on the origination of the world.
10. Al-kalamat al-tayyibah. As written in Rudat al-jannat, it entails a comparison of the ideas of Mir Damad and Mulla Sadra.
11. Glosses on Fadil Khafri's Glosses on al-Tajrid.
12. Diwan (collection of poems).
The writer of Reyhanat al-adab has attributed the following two books to him:
13. Glosses on Qushchi's Commentary on al-Tajrid (chapter on substances and accidents).
14. Glosses on Mulla 'Abdullah Yazdi's Glosses on Tahzib al-mantiq.
Most of these works - particularly his Arabic works - indicate that he taught them. Moreover, we can infer from his emphasis upon Tajrid al-kalam that it was his main textbook. This is because, in addition to the firmness of its philosophical basis, this book is considered an introduction to the Transcendent Philosophy and does not provoke negative reactions in opponents of philosophy.
Children
Fayyad Lahiji had some children whose number is not known to us. However, we know the names of three of his sons: Mirza Hassan, Mirza Ibrahim, and Mirza Muhammed Baqir. No reference has been made to the names of his daughters and son-in-laws in history books. Apparently, he had no daughters.
1. Mirza Hassan Lahiji: Mirza Hassan or Mulla Hassan was most probably his eldest child. He was born in 1049 AH in Qum, and his mother was Mulla Sadra's daughter. As Hazin wrote in his travel account, he saw Mirza Hassan at the end of his life and during his old age. He praised him and said that he was a master of the sciences of his time, jurisprudence, and wisdom.
The writer of Tatmil al-'amal, written in 1191 AH and about 70 years after Mirza Hassan's death, has called him "the unique feature of his time". He has written that at the time of his father's death, Mirza Hassan was not a knowledgeable man; however, out of respect for his father, his students placed him on his father's chair until he became a master of rational sciences. Later he went to Najaf and after learning religious sciences returned to Qum.
[1]Mirza Hassan Lahiji was one of the students of his father and, thus, must have deserved the attributes ascribed to him in the books of his contemporaries.
He did not pretend to having the knowledge of philosophy and gnosis and favored solitude. The opponents of wisdom have praised him but not his ancestor, Mulla Sadra. He wrote some books the most famous of which are Sham' al-yaqin (on the principles of religion) and A'inah hikmat.
[2] He died in 1121 AH in Qum and was buried in Shaykhan graveyard. Later, after some renovating works on the layout of streets, the graveyard was hidden under concrete. His grave is now under the pavement of the street.2. Mirza Ibrahim or Mirza Muhammed Ibrahim: He is said to have been one of Fayyad's children.
[3] Shaykh Aqa Bozorg Tehrani has referred to him as Muhammed Ibrahim Lahiji in a chapter called "the Stars of the 12th century". He has introduced him as a knowledgeable scholar who was apparently a student of Mulla Muhammed Taqi Majlisi, from whom he took the permission to narrate hadith. Mirza Ibrahim had a book called al-Qawa'id al-hakmiyyah.[4]It is likely that he studied wisdom and gnosis under his father and hadith under Majlisi. Therefore, he was both a scholar and a sage. His place of residence, age, and burial place are not known to us. However, he was certainly born after the death of his grandfather, Mulla Sadra, in Qum. He probably died in the same place.
3. Mirza Muhammed Baqir: We do not know anything about the dates of his birth and death, the place of his residence, and other aspects of his life. In his book, Aqa Bozorg Tehrani has referred to his name in the chapter on the great men of the 11th century.
[5] He has also referred to him in the part on the great men of the 12th century.Death and Resting Place
Following the rules of nature, this prominent philosopher and gnostic finally reached the end of his life at the age of seventy. After suffering a lot of pains, he reached his eternal resting place, left his tried body, and joined his master, Mulla Sadra, and other favorites of God in Heaven like an angel.
The time of this death is not known to us. Some say that he passed away in 1051 AH. However, since he wrote his Goharmorad in the name of Shah Abbas II, who came to the throne in 1052, and was alive during his reign, this date cannot be correct.
Some others have written that he died in 1072 AH. The pieces of evidence in this regard include some of his poems about his student, Qadi Sa'id Qumi, who was born in 1049 AH, and show that at that time he was a knowledgeable man who was about 23 years old.
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Abstracts
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Factors Underlying the Development of the issue of Religious Experience
Aynollāh Khademi
Key words:
religious experience natural theology
the Scripture Enlightenment
idealism Romantism
A Critical Study of the Concept of "Truth" in Mulla Sadra and Heidegger
Muhammed Bidhendi
proposition
Argument of Motion in Aristotle's Philosophy and the Transcendent Philosophy
motion mover
moved first Mover
A Comparative Study of Iranian-Islamic Philosophers Concerning the Perfect Man
Ahmad Izadi Yazdani Abadi
One of the most important purposes of education is to train a "perfect man". However, the concept of the perfect man is one of the topics that have been discussed by philosophers, sages, and gnostics since long ago. It is also of interest to psychologists nowadays. The Iranian ancient schools of thought showed their attention to the idea of the perfect man by referring to certain concepts such as the "eternal man" or the "primary man". Nevertheless, the origin of this idea is considered to be the Islamic-Iranian gnosis. Hallaj, Ibn 'Arabi, 'Abdulkarim Gilani, 'Aziz al-Din Nasafi, Shams Tabrizi, and Rumi are among the most prominent gnostics who, due to their interests, have portrayed the picture of the perfect man following a gnostic approach based on love, unveiling, and intuition. Iranian philosophers and sages such as Farabi, Ibn Sina, Miskawayah, and Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi followed a philosophical and rationalist approach towards the perfect man. However, Mulla Sadra described perfection based on both approaches. In this paper, which is the result of a comparative study, the writer has initially tried to discuss the significant theories of the above-mentioned philosophers and thinkers in this regard briefly. Then he has compared them with each other in order to determine their commonalities and differences.
Key words:
perfection perfect man
gnosis gnostic approach
philosophical and rational approach spiritual perfection
rational (theoretical) perfection practical (moral) perfection
Death and immortality have always been among the most fundamental topics occupying man's mind. In fact, the issues related to the quality of immortality after death have always enjoyed newness, and various theories and ideas have been presented in this regard. The theory of metempsychosis introduces one of the oldest human beliefs. Like other early philosophers, Suhrawardi also dealt with this issue in detail in his various works except for Hikmat al-ishraq. He mainly talked about the impossibility of metempsychosis and its absurdity and followed the theories of Peripatetic philosophy in this regard. However, his denial of this issue, specifically in the above-mentioned book, lost color, and it seems that he did not intend to give up this theory. The purpose of this paper is to study and discover his final view in this regard.The paper concludes that, considering his own principles, Suhrawardi must have been against metempsychosis; however, his final words in Hikmat al-ishraq, which, in a way, represent his ultimate view of this theory, show his doubts in this regard. Thus we can neither accept that he finally refuted metempsychosis nor agree that he believed in it. Perhaps his doubts and hesitations in this respect were inspired by lack of a distinction between resurrection and metempsychosis in the words of the people of intuition, his own intuitions, as well as the secretive nature of the words of ancient Iranian and Greek philosophers.
Key words:
Shaykh al-Ishraq Hikmat al-ishraq
metempsychosis
Marziah Sadiqi
The present paper deals with man's descent and ascent in the arcs of descent and ascent. It explains man's evolution in the world on the basis of certain philosophical principles. Since this process has no end and is rooted in man's essence, his development will continue in the intermediate world (barzakh) and the Hereafter. However, considering the infinity of the Divine Essence, Names, and Attributes, if man wishes to become theosis, he cannot stop at any point of this process of development and must go on until eternity.
Key words:
the soul development
the intermediate world Hereafter
happiness motion
Suhrab Ganjimorad
Logos is the key to knowing Heraclites. In order to perceive his ideas in this regard, it is first necessary to take some preliminary steps, as follows:
1. Paying attention to the hidden meaning of Logos rather than focusing on its literal translation. None of the equivalents of this word in other languages truly represents its meaning.
2. Analyzing the process of the development of the concept of Logos and trying to obtain a more thorough and unbiased perception of the original meaning of Logos, as intended by the Greek and without imposing the modern principles of knowledge on it.
3. Gaining familiarity with the culture of ancient Greece and the views of ancient Greeks concerning the world in order to explore the complicated and intricate relations between Logos and other basic concepts such as manifestation, truth, and nature.
4. Learning about Heraclites' profound views regarding Logos in Greek culture and his contributions to the enrichment of this concept.
5. Perceiving the principial, sublime, and harmonious worldview that Logos has created in order to unite the three fields of thought, ethics, and language with each other.
After going through the above stages, one can provide a convincing answer to the following question: Is Heraclites a philosopher who speaks ambiguously or a multi-dimensional thinker and one of the most prominent of all brilliant figures of the field of human thought whose figurative language requires a thorough study of Greek culture in order to be understood perfectly?
Key words:
Logos manifestation
truth nature
thinking ethics
speaking